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Name: __________________________________________ Date: ________________ Block: _____ PROTEIN SYNTHESIS: MAKING PROTEIN RNA Made up of Phosphate Ribose (a sugar) Four bases RNA bases are: Adenine Guanine Cytosine _______________________ (instead of thymine) Single stranded Forms part of ribosomes Two types of RNA: _________(transfer) mRNA (messenger) TRANSCRIPTION: USING DNA TO MAKE mRNA _______________________ (an enzyme) unzips DNA by breaking the Hydrogen bonds between the bases. Only one strand of DNA is transcribed. Complementary RNA nucleotides are added to the DNA strand. DNA RNA A–U G–C T–A C–G The start codon is the signal for the place to start transcription. Transcription stops at the __________ codons. The sequence of bases along DNA that is transcribed is a gene. The RNA that is made is mRNA. mRNA PROCESSING After mRNA is made, enzymes may cut out pieces of the strand. The sections that are removed are called __________________. The sections that remain are called ___________________ and are put together. The finished/mature mRNA strand then leaves the nucleus and is ready for translation. THE IMPORTANCE OF PROTEINS Each gene controls the making of a protein. A gene is section of DNA that gives instructions for a specific protein to be made 20 amino acids make up all proteins 2 Proteins are required for almost every reaction that occurs in your body! CODONS Codon - _________________ bases in a row that determine the amino acid that is used to make a protein. Some codons do not represent amino acids, but instead act as stop signals (the end of a protein). Note, one amino acid may have more than one codon. TRANSLATION: FROM mRNA TO PROTEIN Begins when a ribosome attaches to an mRNA strand. mRNA is used to make a specific protein (or polypeptide). RIBOSOMES The organelle where proteins are made. They are made up of 2 subunits with 2 binding sites. tRNA tRNA (transfer RNA) is a strand of nucleotides that has an ___________________attached to it. tRNA carries the appropriate amino acid to the mRNA/ribosome complex. If mRNA is UGG then the tRNA is _______. Translation begins with the start codon. Each amino acid that is brought in to the ribosome is attached to the growing amino acid chain (or protein) The bond between amino acids is called a ___________________ bond. About 15 amino acids are added per second. Translation stops when a stop codon is reached. There are no tRNA’s for the stop codons. The protein is released to do its job. WHERE DOES THE PROTEIN GO? Sometimes the finished protein goes into the rough ER. The rough ER transports it to various places including the plasma membrane, ________________ apparatus, and cytoplasm. The Golgi processes and packages proteins. Fro example, some proteins have sugars attached to them. The remodeled proteins leave the Golgi in ____________________ (sacs) to go to other parts of the cell or to leave the cell. BIOTECHNOLOGY: The future is here! MUTATIONS Mutation - changes in the DNA sequence that affect genetic information Types of mutations: Gene mutations - changes within a _______________ gene Chromosomal mutations - changes within a whole ____________________ (affects multiple genes) 3 GENE MUTATIONS Point Mutation - a change in a single ______________________example: changing an A to a C) Frame-shift Mutation - an insertion or deletion of a nucleotide that causes a different reading of codons from the point of the change to the end of the gene Point Mutations Normal AAT TAA TAG GAT TTT AAA Mutation AAT TAG TAG GAT TTT AAA Frame-Shift Mutations Usually occurs as a result of an insertion or deletion Normal TAC GCA TGG ATT Insertion TAT CGC ATG GAT T Example using words: THE FAT CAT ATE THE RAT THE FAT C AT A TE T HE R AT TEF ATC ATA TET HER AT Just like this mutated sentence does not make sense, frameshift mutations make nonsense proteins that cannot do their jobs correctly. CHROMOSOMAL MUTATIONS Deletion – when part or all of a chromosome is lost Duplication – when part of a chromosome is mistakenly _______________________ Inversion – when part of a chromosome becomes oriented in ______________ of its normal direction Translocation – when one part of a chromosome breaks off and attaches to another nonhomologous (not the partner) chromosome WHEN DO MUTATIONS OCCUR? During DNA replication, mistakes can be made when DNA polymerase adds complementary nucleotides. If this mutation or mistake happens very early on in a baby’s development, the mutation can affect the entire baby. The rest of the cells will have that same mutation. Remember, we all start off as one cell that must make many news cells through mitosis. Every time your cells divide, DNA has to copy itself and mistakes can be made. If a one of your skin cells divides right now and a mutation occurs, this is probably not a problem. However, if the mutation causes certain genes to change, the new, mutated skin cell can become a cancer cell. 4 CAUSE OF MUTATIONS Mutagen – any agent that causes DNA to ______________________ UV light Radiation Smoking Many different chemicals GENE REGULATION Only ______________ of your genes are being expressed (used to make protein) at any given time. Your body needs mechanisms to “turn on” or “turn off” genes. Chemicals can act as blocks or starters. Some cancers are caused by genes being turned on that should not have been! For example, these genes can be turned on by smoking, which mutates DNA. GENETIC ENGINEERING: Manipulating DNA Electrophoresis DNA is cut by _______________________________to make fragments. Restriction enzymes cut DNA at specific sequences. Electrophoresis is a technique that separates DNA fragments (using electricity) in a jello-like slab based on the size of the fragments. Smaller fragments are able to travel longer distances more _____________. DNA has a negative charge so the fragments will flow toward the positive electrode (opposites attract). If you were to compare two samples of the same DNA using the same restriction enzymes, the banding pattern would be the same. Different people make different banding patterns. AND WHY WOULD WE DO THIS? DNA Fingerprinting _______________________ Tests Children have a banding that is a combination of their mom’s and dad’s banding. Crime solving Identify the person who committed a crime (no two people have the same DNA) Medical diagnosis Determine if you have the gene that causes a disease or disorder. 5 GMOs Genetically modified organism (GMO) – an organism with DNA that has been altered through genetic engineering Transgenic - a GMO that has been altered with DNA from another ______________________ Transgenic Bacteria Bacteria have had many different genes put into them Some examples of human genes that are put into bacteria __________________ gene Human growth hormone gene Clotting factors gene Transgenic Animals Used to study genes and improve the food supply Mice with human-like immune system genes. Livestock with extra copies of growth hormone genes. Sheep and pigs that produce human proteins in their milk. Transgenic Plants Used for food supply and medical supplies Rice with _______________________ (beta-carotene) gene Genes for herbicide and pesticide resistance in plants Cloning Producing genetically identical organisms from one original cell. We have successfully cloned pigs, cows, mice, sheep, and monkeys. The first animal cloned was a sheep named Dolly in 1997. GENETICS Genetics – the study of _______________________ or passing on of genes Gene – a sections of DNA that codes for a ______________ to be made Allele – the _________ that a gene takes (ex. dominant or recessive) Homozygous – having the ____________ alleles for a trait Heterozygous – having __________________alleles for a trait Dominant trait – an allele that is fully expressed in heterozygotes; represented by a capital letter 6 Recessive trait – an allele that is not observed in heterozygotes; represented by a lower case letter Genotype – the _______________________ of alleles (letters) that an organism has Phenotype – the physical trait or visible characteristic determined by the genes GENETIC PROBLEMS Link between meiosis and genetics: Single Trait Crosses: 7 Pedigree: Incomplete Dominance Crosses: Codominance Crosses: Multiple Allele Crosses: 8 Blood Type: BLOOD TYPES GENOTYPES TYPE A TYPE B TYPE AB TYPE O Blood Type Crosses: Sex-linked Crosses: ANTIGENS (MARKERS) ANTIBODIES (FIGHTERS) RECEIVE FROM? DONATE TO?