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Chapter 9 - Patterns of Inheritance AIM: Are we born this way or does the environment make us who we are? TOPIC 3 Genetic Continuity Chapter 9 - Patterns of Inheritance AIM: Are we born this way or does the environment make us who we are? Our next adventure is into genetics or the study of heredity. Heredity is the passage of design information (DNA) from the parent(s) to the offspring. Chapter 9 - Patterns of Inheritance AIM: Are we born this way or does the environment make us who we are? Nature vs. Nurture Nature-Nurture is the classic debate concerning genetics (ones inherited genes - nature) vs. environment (nurture). Which is more important? Are you more intelligent than your friend because of the genes you were given by your parents or because of how your parents/teachers/etc… Chapter 9 - Patterns of Inheritance AIM: Are we born this way or does the environment make us who we are? Nature vs. Nurture Which do you think is more important, the genes that store the information to build your RNA and proteins, which built your mind, OR the environment that your mind was built in? Where would you look to determine if nature or nurture is Identical twins (better yet, identical twins that were separated at b more important? Chapter 9 - Patterns of Inheritance AIM: Are we born this way or does the environment make us who we are? The Pit-bull (left) and the Rottweiler (right) were both artificially selected for their aggression and natural tendency to guard objects. This means that this tendency is built into the wiring of their brains, which were built by proteins in cells, which were built from the information stored in the genes, which came Chapter 9 - Patterns of Inheritance AIM: Are we born this way or does the environment make us who we are? The Pit-bull (left) and the Rottweiler (right) were both artificially selected for their aggression and natural tendency to guard objects. Artificial Selection:When humans choose which offspring to mate, forcing certain characteristics (traits). Chapter 9 - Patterns of Inheritance AIM: Describe the rules that govern how traits are inherited. Conclusion: The environment can affect gene expression (how much protein is made, etc…) Chapter 3 - The Molecules of Cells AIM: Describe the structure of DNA and RNA? Reminder Chromosomes (DNA; the books) contain thousands of genes (sentences) that code for RNA and in turn protein. **Proteins built you and maintain you and therefore they determine your traits. Genes therefore determine your traits (the color of your eyes, height, shape of your face, skin color, etc…) Heredity is the passing of ones genes to their offspring. Chapter 8 - The cellular bases of reproduction and inheritance AIM: Describe the eukaryotic cell cycle. Let’s look at the structure of DNA once more quickly Chapter 8 - The cellular bases of reproduction and inheritance AIM: Describe the eukaryotic cell cycle. C-G G-C A-T G-C G-C T-A T-A T-A A-T A-T A-T C-G C-G T-A C-G G-C C-G G-C A-T G-C G-C T-A T-A T-A A-T A-T A-T C-G C-G T-A C-G G-C Chapter 8 - The cellular bases of reproduction and inheritance AIM: Describe the eukaryotic cell cycle. DNA Double-stranded nucleic acid (the books) stuck in the nucleus (the library) in eukaryotes that contains the information (genes) to build every mRNA, tRNA and rRNA. Chromosome A single piece of double-stranded DNA and associated proteins like histones. Humans have 46 chromosomes in every cell with a nucleus (a single book). Chromatin All of the chromosomes in the nucleus Chapter 10 - Molecular Biology of the Gene NEW AIM: How is DNA replicated DNA REPLICATION Immediately after determining the structure of DNA (1953), Watson and Crick proposed what is known as the semi-conservative model of DNA replication, and they happened to be correct although they would now know this until experiments done by American geneticists Meselson and Stahl in 1958… Chapter 10 - Molecular Biology of the Gene AIM: How is DNA replicated – The semi-conservative model GENERAL OVERVIEW What must happen first? The DNA strands must separate (hydrogen bonds are broken between A-T and C-G base pairs). An enzyme known as DNA helicase does this (an enzyme that unwinds and opens a helix is called a helicase – get it?)… AIM: How10 is DNA replicated? Chapter - Molecular Biology of the Gene AIM: How is DNA replicated – The semi-conservative model GENERAL OVERVIEW Now what must happen? -The two strands called template or parent strands will be used as a template to fill in the new strands. -The template is what you look at to make a new copy. It is a pattern you AIM: How10 is DNA replicated? Chapter - Molecular Biology of the Gene AIM: How is DNA replicated – The semi-conservative model GENERAL OVERVIEW Nucleotides, which are in high concentration and randomly diffusing around the cell (in the nucleus of eukaryotes, are correctly paired and DNA polymerase attached to each other (dehydration synthesis) by the enzyme… Fig. 10.4A AIM: How10 is DNA replicated? Chapter - Molecular Biology of the Gene AIM: How is DNA replicated – The semi-conservative model GENERAL OVERVIEW Parent or template strands Daughter or complementary strands The result is two identical daughter chromosomes, each containing one strand from the original parent molecule and one newly synthesized strand called the daughter strand, which is complementary to the parent strand (semi-conservative). Fig. 10.4A Chapter 10 - Molecular Biology of the Gene NEW AIM: How is genetic information transmitted from DNA to protein? GENE EXPRESSION Going from Gene to Protein Chapter 10 - Molecular Biology of the Gene NEW AIM: How is genetic information transmitted from DNA to protein? How is the genetic information transmitted from DNA to protein so that the proteins can build and maintain you? Fig. 10.6A ? Chapter 10 - Molecular Biology of the Gene AIM: How is genetic information transmitted from DNA to protein? ? Fig. 10.6A What is the first step and what enzyme is involved? Chapter 10 - Molecular Biology of the Gene NEW AIM: How is genetic information transmitted from DNA to protein? The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology By RNA polymerase …and the second step? Transcribe means to make a written copy. mRNA is a copy of a segment of DNA, a gene. They are the same language – nucleic acid language. Chapter 10 - Molecular Biology of the Gene NEW AIM: How is genetic information transmitted from DNA to protein? The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology By the ribosome and tRNAs Translate means to convert between languages. In this case, nucleic acid language is translated into amino acid language by the ribosome and tRNA. Chapter 10 - Molecular Biology of the Gene AIM: How is genetic information transmitted from DNA to protein? The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology Reminder (analogy): The nucleus is the library, the DNA/chromosomes are the reference books that cannot leave the library, and the mRNA is the transcription or copy of a small part of the DNA, a gene, that is slipped through the nuclear pore to a ribosome (rRNA + proteins) in the cytosol that will be involved in translating the nucleic acid language into amino acid language (a polypeptide) with the help of tRNA. Do bacteria have a library? They do not have a nucleus…transcription occurs in the semifluid Chapter 10 - Molecular Biology of the Gene AIM: How is genetic information transmitted from DNA to protein? Fig. 10.7 Reminder: A single chromosome has thousands of genes… Each gene codes for? A complementary piece of RNA (mRNA, tRNA or rRNA) If the gene codes for mRNA, then the mRNA will code for?A protein Chapter 10 - Molecular Biology of the Gene NEW AIM: How is genetic information transmitted from DNA to protein? The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology Chapter 10 - Molecular Biology of the Gene AIM: How is genetic information transmitted from DNA to protein? Cracking the Genetic (Translating DNA/RNA Language Code into amino acid language) Genetic Code: The rules by which information is encoded in DNA/mRNA and translated into polypeptide sequences. The chromosomes are books, which would make a gene just one sentence in these books… Chromosomes = Books Gene = Sentence in the Book RNA = A copy of the sentence What does the “sentence” say? Chapter 10 - Molecular Biology of the Gene AIM: How is genetic information transmitted from DNA to protein? Cracking the Genetic (Translating DNA/RNA Language Code into amino acid language) All English books are written using 26 letters arranged into different combinations to make words, which are combined to make sentences... RNA Nucleic Acid Language is MUCH simpler… Chapter 10 - Molecular Biology of the Gene AIM: How is genetic information transmitted from DNA to protein? Cracking the Genetic (Translating DNA/RNA Language Code into amino acid language) RNA Nucleic Acid Language is MUCH simpler… 1. There are only 4 letters (A,U,G,C) 2. These letters combine to make “words”, called codons, which are only 3 letters long. Chapter 10 - Molecular Biology of the Gene AIM: How is genetic information transmitted from DNA to protein? Cracking the Genetic (Translating DNA/RNA Language Code into amino acid language) RNA Nucleic Acid Language is MUCH simpler… 1. There are only 4 letters (A,U,G,C) 2. These letters combine to make “words”, called codons, which are only 3 letters long. How many different codons can be made from the four letters? 4 x 4 x4 = 64 *Only 64 words in the entire language!! (It could not be any simpler and still work) Chapter 10 - Molecular Biology of the Gene AIM: How is genetic information transmitted from DNA to protein? Cracking the Genetic (Deciphering DNA/RNA Code Language) What do these 64 codons code for? 1. Sixty-One of the codons code for an amino acid Chapter 10 - Molecular Biology of the Gene AIM: How is genetic information transmitted from DNA to protein? Cracking the Genetic (Deciphering DNA/RNA Code Language) What do these 64 codons code for? 1. Sixty-One of the codons code for an amino acid Example: The codon AUG codes for the amino acid Methionine (Met) – this is typically the first or starting codon, whichMethionine make __________ the first amino acid of most proteins Chapter 10 - Molecular Biology of the Gene AIM: How is genetic information transmitted from DNA to protein? Cracking the Genetic (Deciphering DNA/RNA Code Language) What do these 64 codons code for? 1. Sixty-One of the codons code for an amino acid Example: The codon AUG codes for the amino acid Methionine (Met) – this is typically the first or starting codon, whichMethionine make __________ the first amino acid of most proteins 2. Three of the codons tell the ribosome to stop – UAG, UAA, UGA NEW AIM: How is genetic information transmitted from DNA to Protein? The genetic code was cracked in the 1960’s, just after the structure of DNA was elucidated. The chart to the right is used to look up any RNA codon and determine the amino acid it codes for… Fig. 10.8A The Genetic Code NEW AIM: How is genetic information transmitted from DNA to Protein? There are Sixty-One codons coding for amino acids, but there are only how many amino acids? 20 What does that mean? Some amino acids are coded for by more than one codon like Leu, which is coded for by 6 codons! Fig. 10.8A The Genetic Code AIM: How is genetic information transmitted from DNA to Protein? OVERVIEW This is it! This is how every RNA/polypeptide in all of your cells is made starting from the gene!! Fig. 10.15 Chapter 10 - Molecular Biology of the Gene NEW AIM: How are genes altered and what is the result? Mutagenes is Muta- = mutation = any change in the sequence of DNA -genesis = origin or production of Therefore, mutagenesis means to “Produce a mutation” or to produce any change in the DNA sequence of an organism. Chapter 10 - Molecular Biology of the Gene AIM: How are genes altered and what is the result? What causes mutations? Chapter 10 - Molecular Biology of the Gene AIM: How are genes altered and what is the result? mutations 1. Radiation - UV light from the sun - gamma rays from outside Earth (ex. Distant supern - Soil and certain rocks in the Earth’s crust conta radioactive radon gas -color TV, smoke detectors, computer monitors, X-ray machines, nuclear plants, etc… Chapter 10 - Molecular Biology of the Gene AIM: How are genes altered and what is the result? Induced mutations A. Mutagens (carcinogens) 1. High energy radiation Chapter 10 - Molecular Biology of the Gene AIM: How are genes altered and what is the result? Induced mutations A. Mutagens (carcinogens) 1. High energy radiation Chapter 10 - Molecular Biology of the Gene AIM: How are genes altered and what is the result? Induced mutations A. Mutagens (carcinogens) 2. Chemicals B. Pollutants Ex. Cigarette Smoke Chapter 10 - Molecular Biology of the Gene AIM: How are genes altered and what is the result? A List of known carcinogens in cigarette smoke Acetaldehyde Acetamide Acrylamide Acrylonitrile 2-Amino-3,4-dimethyl-3H-imidazo[4,5-f]quinoline (MeIQ) 3-Amino-1,4-dimethyl-5H-pyrido [4,3-b]indole (Trp-P-1) 2-Amino-l-methyl-6-phenyl-1H-imidazo [4,5-b]pyridine (PhlP) 2-Amino-6-methyldipyrido[1,2-a:3',2'-d]imidazole (Glu-P-1) 3-Amino-l-methyl-5H-pyrido {4,3-b]indole (Trp-P-2 2-Amino-3-methyl-9H-pyrido[2,3-b]indole (MeAaC) 2-Amino-9H-pyrido[2,3-b]indole (AaC) 4-Aminobiphenyl 2-Aminodipyrido[1,2-a:3',2'-d]imidazole (Glu-P-2) 0-Anisidine Arsenic Benz[a]anthracene Benzene Benzo[a]pyrene Benzo[b]fluoranthene Benzo[j]fluoranthene Benzo[k]fluoranthene Benzo[b]furan Beryllium 1,3-Butadiene Cadmium Catechol (1,2-benzenediol) p-Chloroaniline Chloroform Cobalt p,p'-DDT Dibenz[a,h]acridine Dibenz[a,j]acridine Dibenz(a,h)anthracene 7H-Dibenzo[c,g]carbazole Dibenzo(a,e)pyrene Dibenzo(a,i)pyrene Dibenzo(a,h)pyrene Dibenzo(a,i)pyrene Dibenzo(a,l)pyrene 3,4-Dihydroxycinnamic acid (caffeic acid) Ethylbenzene Ethylene oxide Formaldehyde Furan Glycidol Heptachlor Hydrazine Indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene IQ 92-Amino-3-methyl-3H-imidazo[4,5-f]quinoline) Isoprene Lead 5-Methyl-chrysene 2-Naphthylamine Nitrobenzene Nitrogen mustard Nitromethane 2-Nitropropane N-Nitrosodi-n-butylamine (NDBA) N-Nitrosodi-n-propylamine (NDPA) N-Nitrosodiethanolamine (NDELA) N-Nitrosodiethylamine (DEN) N-Nitrosodimethylamine (DMN) N-Nitrosoethylmethylamine (NEMA, MEN) 4-(N-Nitrosomethylamino)-1-(3-pyridinyl)-1-butanone (NNK) N'-Nitrosonornicotine (NNN) N-Nitrosopiperidine (NPIP, NPP) N-Nitrosopyrrolidine (NPYR, NPY) Polonium-210 (Radon 222) Propylene oxide Safrole Styrene Tetrachloroethylene o-Toluidine (2-methylaniline) Trichloroethylene Urethane (carbamic acid, ethyl ester) Vinyl acetate Vinyl chloride 4-Vinylcyclohexene 2,6-Xylidine (2,6-dimethylaniline) Chapter 10 - Molecular Biology of the Gene AIM: How are genes altered and what is the result? Induced mutations A. Mutagens (carcinogens) 2. Chemicals D. Food Additives i. Acesulfame K ii. Artificial coloring (blue-1, blue-2, red-3, yellow6) iii. BHA and BHT iv. Nitrite and Nitrate v. Olestra vi. Potassium Bromate Chapter 10 - Molecular Biology of the Gene AIM: How are genes altered and what is the result? Induced mutations A. Mutagens (carcinogens) 5. Certain drugs Ex. Chemotherapy drugs 6. Viruses (Oncoviruses) a. HPV (Human Papilloma Virus) b. EBV (Epstein Barr Virus) c. Hepatitis C virus Chapter 10 - Molecular Biology of the Gene AIM: How are genes altered and what is the result? Types of Mutations that can oc Chapter 10 - Molecular Biology of the Gene AIM: How are genes altered and what is the result? Types of Mutations Fig. 10.16B Chapter 10 - Molecular Biology of the Gene AIM: How are genes altered and what is the result? Types of Mutations 1. Point mutations – this type of mutation is called a point mutation because it happens at a single point (single letter) Chapter 10 - Molecular Biology of the Gene AIM: How are genes altered and what is the result? Types of Mutations In this case, the mutation caused an amino acid change in the protein, which will cause a structural change in the protein/polypeptide and possibly a change in the protein’s Chapter 10 - Molecular Biology of the Gene AIM: How are genes altered and what is the result? Fig. 10.16B 2. Deletions – one or more nucleotides are lost. If a multiple of 3 are lost (3,6,9,etc…), then only those amino acids are lost from the polypeptide. However, if any other number are lost, all the amino acids change (called a reading frame shift or a frame shift mutation). Types of Mutation Chapter 10 - Molecular Biology of the Gene AIM: How are genes altered and what is the result? Cause of Tay Sach’s 3. Insertions – one or more nucleotides are gained. If a multiple of 3 are inserted (3,6,9,etc…), then new amino acids are added to the polypeptide. However, if any other number are inserted, all the amino acids change (reading frame shift). Types of Mutation Chapter 10 - Molecular Biology of the Gene AIM: How are genes altered and what is the result? 4. Inversions – Segments of the DNA get flipped (inverted) Types of Mutation Chapter 10 - Molecular Biology of the Gene AIM: How are genes altered and what is the result? Types of Mutations 1. Point mutants or substitutions 2. Deletion 3. Insertion 4. Inversion Chapter 10 - Molecular Biology of the Gene AIM: How are genes altered and what is the result? Somatic vs Germline mutations Chapter 10 - Molecular Biology of the Gene AIM: How are genes altered and what is the result? Somatic (body cell) Mutations occurring in body cells that can lead mutations to cancer, but are not heritable (CANNOT be passed to offspring). Is cancer itself heritable? Cancer is NOT heritable, but the predisposition to get cancer IS! Chapter 10 - Molecular Biology of the Gene AIM: How are genes altered and what is the result? Germline mutations Germline cells - gametes and the cells that will become gametes after meiosis. How are these mutations different? Mutations that occur in these cells can be inherited by the offspring. These are the critical ones in terms of evolution. Chapter 10 - Molecular Biology of the Gene AIM: How are genes altered and what is the result? What do all these germline mutations have in common whether positive or negative? The mutations Randomly Create New Genes Without mutation, there would be no new genes, organisms would never change (no evolution!). Why would this not be good? Because the environment changes over time, and if organisms cannot change to keep up with it there will be no organisms. Chapter 12 - DNA Technology and the Human Genome Genetically modify organisms and transgenic organisms GENETIC ENGINEERING Chapter 12 - DNA Technology and the Human Genome Genetically modify organisms and transgenic organisms Genetically modified organisms (GMO’s): -Organisms whose genes have been altered using genetic engineering techniques. Transgenic organisms - Most GMO’s are transgenic organisms… they have received genes from a different organism. Ex. A mouse is given a gene from a human. The mouse is a transgenic GMO. Trans- ; across (across species in this case) Chapter 12 - DNA Technology and the Human Genome Genetically modify organisms (GMO’s) and transgenic organisms GMO’s at home: Zebra danio GloFish 1. Zebra danio was genetically engineered with a gene from sea coral that causes the fish to glow in the presence of environmental toxins. 2. Gene was inserted into the embryo of the fish. 3. First GMO available as a pet. Chapter 12 - DNA Technology and the Human Genome Genetically modify organisms (GMO’s) and transgenic organisms GMO food: Ordinary rice “Golden” rice - “Golden” rice is genetically engineered with genes that code for enzymes that make beta-carotene, a precursor to Vitamin A for countries deficient in foods with Vit. A… - This rice has never been used because of environmental Chapter 12 - DNA Technology and the Human Genome Genetically modify organisms and transgenic organisms GMO medicine: AAT Sheep Genetically engineered sheep with the human gene for alpha-1-antitrypsin (AAT). AAT is extracted from their milk and used to treat humans deficient in AAT, which is one cause of emphysema (a breathing disorder) in approximately 100,000 people in the western world. Chapter 12 - DNA Technology and the Human Genome Genetically modify organisms and transgenic organisms GMO medicine: E. Coli with the human insulin gene - Insulin is made using the bacterium E. coli. - The human gene coding for insulin is inserted into E. coli, which will then make insulin for us (we will see how this is done shortly)… Chapter 12 - DNA Technology and the Human Genome How can we use bacteria to manipulate DNA and protein? Review Slide Bacterial and human DNA is cut using restriction enzymes (enzymes that act like DNA scissors) The DNA is then combined and added back to a bacterium, which will make the protein or more of the gene when it divides. Fig. 12.3