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REPUBLIC UZBEKISTAN MINISTRY OF HEALTH THE CENTER OF DEVELOPMENT OF MEDICAL EDUCATION THE TASHKENT MEDICAL ACADEMY Chair of histology and medical biology Subject ______ histology ___ THEME: «THE СENTRAL NERVE SYSTEM» Methodical recommendation (For students of medical higher schools) Tashkent - 2011 METHODICAL REFERENCES FOR PRACTICAL LESSON ON THE THEME: «THE CENTRAL NERVE SYSTEM» For medical-pedagogic and stomatological faculty (Lesson № 13) 2 Theme: «The Central Nerve system (CNS)» 1. Histology and Medical biology department. Facilities: histologic preparations, microscopes, atlases, slides, computer. 2. Duration of studying of a theme – 4 hours 3. Aim: to know hystogenesis of the CNS; to know the structure of a spinal cord and functional features of its neurons; to know the structure of a cerebellum cortex and its interneuron contacts; to know the structure of the large hemisphere cortex and interneuron connections; to obtain knowledge on a module; to be able to identify these parts/segments of the nervous system, their structural components on micro-preparations. PURPOSE Students should know: morphologic organization of a spinal cord and various types of neurons; structure of the large hemisphere cortex and interneuron links; structure of a cerebellum, types of neurons and their interrelations. A student should obtain to his (her) practical skills by identifying on micropreparations: a spinal cord, cortex of large hemispheres and cerebellum; differentiate cortical layers of large hemispheres and cerebellum; find grey matter in a spinal cord and indicate places of localization of main nuclei (a group of neurons). 4. Motivation The nervous system regulates all the vital processes in an organism and its interactions with the environment. By its anatomy, the nervous system is divided into the central (spinal cord and cerebrum) and the peripheral ones (nerve tracts, ganglia and endings). By the physiologic or functional activity it is divided into autonomic (vegetative), which regulates functions of the inner organs, and somatic (cerebrospinal) ones regulating the functions of the rest parts of an organism. The functions of the nervous system are based on the principles of reflex arch constituted on the chain of neurons. Knowledge of the central and peripheral nervous system histophysiology is necessary to understand its integration and coordination functions, to diagnose properly the diseases that have developed as a result of impairments in the functions of this system. 5. Intersubject and intrasubject correlations. The obtained knowledge may be useful in studying histology of the organ systems, normal physiology, pathologic anatomy and physiology, therapy of the nervous system diseases, surgery and other clinic disciplines. 3 6. Content of the lesson 6.1. Theory. Items for considerations. 1. General characteristics of the nervous system 1.1. Functions: It unites all parts of an organism in the whole system; Provides regulation of various processes and functioning of different organs and tissues; Receives information from outer environment and inner organs, and responds to them. 1.2. Morphologically, nervous system is subdivided into: the central nervous system (CNS) – cerebrum and spinal cord; the peripheral nervous system – peripheral nerve ganglia, nerve fibers and nerve endings. Physiologically it is subdivided into somatic nervous system that regulates spontaneous movements, and autonomic or vegetative nervous system that regulates functions of inner organs and glands. The vegetative nervous system is further subdivided into sympathetic and parasympathetic ones. Aggregations of neurons in the nervous system are called nerve ganglia (nodules). 1.3. Sources of nervous system origination The ectodermal derivatives: 1) Neural tube, from which brain, spinal cord, and ocular retina originate. 2) Ganglious plates, from which spinal and vegetative peripheral nerve ganglia, and the chromatoffin tissue of suprarenal glands are developed. Notion of brain bulbs. Three brain bulbs – anterior, middle and posterior – originate from the anterior (cephalic) end of the nerve tube. Five brain bulbs are derived from them: a) telenchephalon (cortex and white matter of large hemispheres, central ganglia); b) diencephalon (globus pallidus, thalamus opticus metathalamus, epithalamus and the posterior part of hypothalamic area; (c) midbrain – mesoencephalon (lamina [tecti] quadrigemina) brain peduncles, silvien aqueduct; (d) metencephalon (pons varolii and cerebellum); and (e) myelencephalon (medullary brain, medulla oblongata). 1.4. Grey and white matter The grey matter is made up of neuron body, nervous fibers, neuroglia, while the white matter is made up of nervous fibers, neuroglia. 2. Meninges: 1) Dura mater is a regular fibrous dense connective tissue. It is accreted with periosteum of cranial bones. A subdural space is between the dural and arachnoidal meninges. 4 2) Mater arachnoidalis is the loose connective tissue located between the dura mater and pia mater in the arachnoidal space and contains thin bundles of collagen and elastic fibers and cerebro-spinal fluid. It communicates with cerebral ventricles. 3) Pia mater adjoins the cerebral tissue is made of loose connective tissue, contains numerous blood vessels and nerve fibers. 3. Spinal cord 3.1.General structure. It consists of two symmetric halves divided by fissure on the anterior side and sulcus on the posterior one. It is segmented. Each segment contains two anterior and two posterior radiculi forming a nerve. In the central part there is a spinal canal lined by ependimocytes. In the cross section, the grey and white matters can be distinguished. 3.2. In the cross section, the grey substance is seen as H-shaped or butterflyshaped matter. One can see anterior, posterior and lateral horns (protrusions). Both halves of grey substance are connected by grey commissures in its central part. The grey substance contains: neurons, myelinated and myelin free nerve fibers, neuroglia. 3.3. Types of neurons. Functionally neurons are divided in sensor and motor ones, while structurally they are multipolar cells. By localization, the axons are divided into: radicular (axons forming anterior radiculi), internal (axons lying within the grey matter) and bundle (axons forming bundles in the white matter – pathways). 3.4. Nuclei of grey matter. Are column shaped aggregations of neurons. In the posterior horns there are propria and sternal nuclei. The propria (dorsal) nucleus consists of internuncial neurons, the axons of which enter into the white matter of the opposite side. The thoracic (Clarke's) nucleus is represented by large intercallated neurons, the axons of which enter the white matter on the same side. In the intermediary part there are medial (with axons in the white matter of their side) and lateral nuclei located in the lateral horns, being more marked in the thoracic and sacral segments. They reffer to the sympathetic nervous system. Neurons of the lateral nuclei contain enkephalin, neurotensin, P-substance, and somatostatin. In the anterior horns there are medial (all the way along the spinal cord) and lateral (the cervical and lumbal segments) motor nuclei. Motor neurons are alphamajor neurons (muscular motions), alpha-minor neurons (muscle tone) and gamma-motoneurons (muscular spindle innervations). 3.5. White matter surrounds the grey one and consists of longitudinal nerve fibers forming descending and ascending pathways being separated by thin layers of connective tissue and astrocytes. The anterior and posterior radiculi divide the white matters into anterior, lateral and posterior funiculi. The pathways provide connections between various segments of the medulla and cerebrum. 4. A Cerebrum (encephalon) consists of the trunk, two hemispheres and a cerebellum. 5 4.1. The trunk part. It has numerous nuclei surrounded by white matter. Ten pairs of cranial-cerebral nerves leave it. Functionally, nuclei are subdivided into sensory, motor and associative ones. The motoric nuclei may be somatic and vegetative. The axons of neurons in the vegetative nuclei compose preganglionar fibers within 3, 7, 9, 10th pairs of cranial-cerebral nerves. The associative (selector) nuclei transmit nerve impulses going to the large hemisphere cortex or from it to the cerebral trunk and the spinal cord centers. The sensory nuclei analogic to those in the posterior horns of the spinal cord receive impulses from the sensory pseudounipolar or bipolar neurons. The white matter represents bundles of nerve fibers that connect different parts of CNS. 4.2. The large hemisphere cortex. A 3-5 mm thick layer of grey matter which contains neurons (10-15 billions), nerve fibers, neuroglia. Cytoarchitectonics is a localization of neurons having various shapes in layer. Myeloarchitectonics is a localization of nerve fibers in layers. According to the functional characteristics, 52 areas are distinguished in a cortex.. 4.3. Types of neurons: pyramidal and non—pyramidal. The pyramidal cells accounts for over 50 percent of the total number. A central dendrite, which branches from the cellular apex reaches the outer layer. 5 – 16 lateral dendrites give branches in various cortical layers. An axon branching off from the cell basis passes to the white matter. There are gigantic, large, medium and small sized cells. Non-pyramidal cells are available in the various layers of cortex. Their axons transmit impulses to the pyramidal cells. Types: star-, horn-, basket-shaped, axo-axonal, ‘candelabrum’ cells, cells with double bouquet of dendrites, Kakhal’s horizontal cells, Martinotti cells, etc. The cortical layers I. Molecular: Small-sized Kakhal’s neurons, their axons and dendrites are located in the same layer. II. External granular: Small pyramidal and star-shaped cells, their dendrites penetrate the molecular layer and their axons passes to the white matter and molecular layer. III. Pyramidal: Here are small and medium-sized pyramidal cells. Their central dendrites pass to the molecular layer, their lateral ones are located in its own layer, the axons are in the grey matter and pass to the white one. 6 IV. V. VI. The internal granular layer contains small pyramidal cells and starshaped cells. Their axons run to the upper and lower layers. The ganglious one: the pyramidal cells are large and gigantic in size, their central dendrites reach the molecular layer, while their lateral ones are in the owen layer, axons run to the cerebral and spinal (anterior horns) nuclei – projection efferent cells. Polymorphic ones are spindle-like, star-shaped cells, Martinotti cells. Their dendrites reach the molecular layer, and axons pass to the white matter. Myeloarchitectonics: There are six layers as follows: 1) tangential – the fibers are horizontally directed; 2) band of Bechterev (disfibrotic) 3) epistrand lamina (lamina supra strata) 4) external band of Baiarje (fibers form the network and bundles) 5) internal band of Baiarje (fibers form the network and bundles) 6) infrastrand lamina and internal border band (lamina substriata and lamina limitants interna) – densely located fibers. Fibers lying in the cortex form three types of contacts: afferent radial (beams) lines in the 4, 5, 6th layers; associative and commissural ones in the 1, 2, 4, and 5th layers; efferent fibers connects the cortex with white subcortical areas. 4.6. Types of the cortex structure Agranular one is in the motoric zone, the most developed in the III, V, and VI layers. Granular one is in the sensory centers and more marked in the second and fourth layers. 4.7. The notion of module. It is a morpho-functional unit of columnar shape being 200 – 300 μm in diameter. Each column contains about 5,000 neurons. The column contains: afferent pathways; system of local contacts; efferent pathways. Afferent pathways are in the column center and formed by cortico-cortical fiber, the endings of which reach Martinotti cells, astrocytes, spine-like cells and the lateral dendritis of pyramidal cells. A system of local links (contacts) is composed of intercallated neurons. The exiting effect on the pyramidal cells is produced by spine star-like neurons. The inhibitory effect is produced by: ‘candelabrum’ cells in the inner layers; 7 basket-shaped cells in the II, III, IV, VI layers; cells having double set of dendrites in the II and III layers; cells having axonal penicillar brush are star-like cells of the second layers; Efferent pathways are made of axons of pyramidal cells of the third and fourth layers and provide connections with the neighbouring columns and the subcortical centers. 4.8. White matter consists of ascending and descending bundles of nerve fibers and neuroglia (all types of glial cells). Boundary glial membranes are formed by flattened endings of the astrocytes processes. There are three types of glial membranes: perivascular ones surrounding hemocapillaries. They are components of a hemato-encephalic barriers; superficial one is located beneath the pia mater and makes up the external frontier of cerebrum and medulla; subependimal one is a component of the neuro-liquor barriers (ependimoglia, basement membrane, processes of astrocytes). Components of the hemato-encephalic barrier: endothelium of a hemocapillary; basement membrane; glial membrane formed by astrocyte processes. 5. Cerebellum is located above the oblongated medulla and pons (bridge) and consists of two hemispheres having sulci and gyri and three pairs of pedicules. Function: It is the balancing center, coordinating of movements, and provides the muscular tension. Its structure: grey matter forms cortex and nuclei in the white matter. 5.1. The cerebellum cortex has three layers: molecular, ganglious and granular. 1) The molecular one consists of cells, which are not numerous. These are basket-shaped cells, the axons of which surround bodies of the Purkinje cells; astrocytes having short and long axons. 2) Ganglious layer is formed by one layer of pear-shaped Purkinje cells surrounded by axons of basket-shaped cells and astrocytes having long axons. Their dendrites are branching off within the molecular layer, and their axons penetrating the white matter reach the nuclei of the cerebellum, their collaterals returning to their own layer. 3) Granular layer consists of compact located cells – granules, the Golgi star-shaped cells and spindle-like horizontal cells. Granular cells. Their dendrites make up synapses with the mossy fibers (exiting effect) and the Golgi cells of the second type (inhibitory effect). 8 The Golgi cells of the I type have long axons reaching the white matter. The Golgi cells of the II type have short axons, which reach the cerebellar glomeruli and form synanses with dendrites of the granular cells (inhibitory effect). The spindle-like cells are located between the ganglious and granular layers, have horizontal dendrites, their axons passing to the white matter. The cerebellar glomeruli in the granular layer form synaptic contact zones among mossy fibers, dendrites of the granular – cells’ and axons of the Golgi cells of the second type. They are surrounded by astrocytes processes. 5.2 Afferent fibers are mossing and crawling. The mossy ones are lying within the spinal-cerebellar and pontis cerebellar pathways and end up in glomeruli granular – cell dendrites (exiting effect). Crawling (liana-like) ones are lying in the olive-cerebellar pathways; make up synapses with the Purkinje cells. Collaterals make up synapses with all the other cells. 5.3. Efferent fibers are made up of Purkinje cells axons, reach nuclei in a cerebellum and vestibular nuclei (inhibitory effect). 6.2. Analytical part: Solving the situation tasks 1. Pathologic-anatomy studies of the human spinal cord have demonstrated destruction and decrease in number of cells constituting nuclei in ventral horns at the cervical and thoracic segments. What functions have been damaged? 2. Poliomyelitis causes damage to the spinal cord and dysfunctions of the skeletal muscles. Destruction of which neurons causes this disease? Which part of the reflex arch has been damaged? 3. The pear-shaped cells are known to have numerous synapses. Which of the afferent fibers of the cerebellum and axons of which neurons form these synapses? 4. Major star-shaped neurons of the granular layer are inhibitory neurons, they do not, however, directly inhibit the pear-shaped cells. Where the inhibitory synapse originating from these cells is localized, and at which level does it interupt off a nerve impulse going to the dendrites of pear-shaped cells? 5. There are given are two preparations of the cerebral cortex. One preparation demonstrates the Vth layer containing gigantic pyramidal cells, its granular layers are almost not developed. The second one does not show gigantic pyramids, but the internal and external granular layers are developed well. Which of these preparations demonstrates the associative zone, and which one demonstrates the motor zone of the brain cortex? 6. Specimens taken from the brains of two victims have been prepared for the intrinsic medical examination. Well-developed pyramidal neurons including that of in the fifth layer are visible in the precentral gyrus on the preparation. The second one obtained from the same area demonstrated small quantity of 9 neurocytes, the neuroglial cells were more numerous. What function was damaged in one of the victims? 7. The posterior radiculi of the spinal cord have been injured as a result of trauma. Which cells and their processes have been impaired? 6.3. Practical part Micro-preparation for independent studying. Preparation 1. Spinal cord, a cross-cut at the thoracic segments. Stained: impregnated with silver. Studying of the preparation should start from visual examination of the specimen using ocular and then under microscope at lower magnification. The spinal cord has two symmetric halves separated from one another by the anterior profound ventral medial fissure and the posterior connective tissue dorsal medial septum. At the organ periphery there is seen white matter and darker grey one in its middle part, having a butterfly shape in the cross cut. The grey matter has narrow dorsal (posterior) horns. The intermediate zone of the gray matter and its lateral part (horn) are located between them. The largest neurons of the spinal cord are located in the ventral horn. They form motor nuclei, which are subdivided into lateral and medial groups. In the intermediate zone there are found medial intermediate nucleus and lateral intermediate one localized in the lateral horns. In the medial part of the dorsal horn basis there is seen thoracic nucleus, while in the center of it there is nucleus proprius of the dorsal horn. The right and left halves of the grey matter are connected with commissure where the central spinal cord canal lined with ependimal cells is located. Ventral, dorsal and lateral funiculi should be found in the white substance. At higher magnifications myelin fibers of the white substance are seen as follows: an axial cylinder seen as a dark spot; a myeline cover – as a white ring being the result of myeline solution during the processing of fibers before its embedding. Find, please, the anterior, posterior horns, all the above described nuclei, the central canal of the spinal cord and multipolar neurons. Draw and designate: 1) ventral medial fissure; 2) dorsal medial septum; 3) the grey matter and a) dorsal, b)lateral, c) ventral horns; 4) the central channel; 5) motor lateral nucleus; 6) motor medial nucleus; 7) thoracic nucleus; 8) nucleus proprius; 9) lateral sympathetic nucleus; 10) white matter; 11) anterior and posterior grey fusions; 12) pia mater. See Fiigure 1. Preparation 2. The cortex of large hemispheria: Impregnated by the Kakhal method. The layers of the cortex are seen at lower magnifications. It is necessary to choose a sulcus between two gyri with pia matter and blood vessels in it. On both sides of the sulcus there is visible the cortical surface. The superficial layer, the molecular one, is distinctly seen as light layer because it contains small quantity of cells. The next layer – external granular one, contains small neurons of about 10 10 μm in size having round, angular or pyramidal shapes. Then, there are seen the widest, external pyramidal layers. The internal granular layer containing smallsized neurons lies beneath it. This layer is seen more distinctly if to have a look on the next internal layer containing gigantic pyramidal cell having 120 μm in height. The sixth layer, the polymorphic one, contains neurons of various shapes and spindle-like ones as well. Beneath the cortex there is seen the white matter containing mainly myelinated fibers. The glyocytes defined by their nuclei are also seen in the grey and white matters. Draw up and designate: 1) cortex of the large hemisphere; 2) molecular layer; 3) external granular layer; 4) external pyramidal neurons; 5) internal granular layer; 6) internal layer of pyramidal neurons (ganglionar); 7) polymorphous layer; and 8) white matter. See Figure 2. Preparation 3. Cerebellum. Impregnated with silver. Use the lower magnification. A main mass of the grey matter is localized on the organ surface forming its cortex. The cerebellar cortical gyri are more branched and form a tree-like shape. Its white matter is localized within the gyri. Please, find three layers in the cerebellar cortex: external – molecular; middle – piriform neurons; internal – granular. The piriform neuron layer is more marked as its cells are very large in size (Purkinje cells), their dendrites are branched, some of which penetrating the molecular layer. In the lower third of the molecular layer, near to the Pukinje cells, there are seen small-sized cells – basket-shaped cells. Their long branched dendrites and neurites lying parallel to the gyri surface are located above the piriform cell bodies. The collateral branches of their axons descend to the Purkinje cells and form a net of fibers. In the upper area of the molecular layer there are star-shaped neurons. Under the piriform neuron layer there is the granular one. It is rich in starshaped cells, or granular cells having small sizes and on the preparation there are seen only their nuclei. Draw up and designate: 1) molecular layer; 2) ganglionar layer; 3) piriform neurons (Purkinje’s cells); 4) granular layer; 5) white matter. See Figure 3. Studying of schemes and electron microphotographs 1) Fig. 4. A scheme of the spinal cord structure. Localization of nuclei in the spinal cord is demonstrated. 2) Fig. 5. The cortex of large hemispheres. The scheme illustrates cytoand myeloarchitectonics of the cortex. 3) Fig. 6. A scheme of the interneuronic contacts in the large hemispheres. Notion of the module of structure-function units of the cortex. 4) Fig. 7. A scheme of cerebellar cortex structure. Various types of neurons in the cortex of cerebellum and interneuronic links in its different layers are demonstrated. 11 5) Fig. 8. A scheme demonstrating the interneuronic connections in the cerebellar cortex, localization of fibers and contacts of mossy-like and crawling fibers with cerebellar neurons. 6) Fig. 9, 10. The cerebellar gromerulus. A scheme illustrating all types of synapses in the glomerulus and their structure in details. 7) Table 1. A scheme of neuron contacts in the cerebellar cortex. 8) Table 2. Classification of cells in the anterior horns of a spinal cord. 9) Table 3. Sources of the nerve system origination. 7. Types of checking levels of knowledge and obtained practical skills - oral - written - solving the situation tasks - checking the practice skills the ability to handle with histologic preparation - drawing adequately the preparations in a sketch-book 8. Criteria for estimation of knowledge by current control № Mark Level of knowledge 1 Advancement in % and points 96-100 % “5” excellent 2 91-95 % “5” excellent 3 86-90 % “5” 1. Answer is complete, logic knowledge is higher the limits of the program. Practical skills are perfect, there is ability to work creatively and can render help to others. 2. Answer is sufficient enough, data were obtained from various additional text-books, practical skill is perfect, is able to give answer to the additional questions can advocate his (her) point of view. 3. Answer is sufficient enough, knowledge is obtained from other publications and valid. Practical skill is perfect. Active. 1.Answer is sufficient enough, but level of knowledge is within the limits of the program. Practical skills are perfect, a student is able to explain the preparations correctly. 2.Answer is sufficient, information obtained from various text-books, no private point of view about the material, coped with practice fully and is able to explain it. 3.Answer is within the limits of the material given in the recommended text-book. Obtained full practical skill. However, no answer to the additional questions, he (she) could not give full answer to additional questions, and was unable to advocate his (her) own point of opinion. 1.Answer is sufficient and logic but within the limits of the program. Coped with practical skill fully. No sufficient answer to the additional 12 4 81-85 % “4” 5 76-80 % “4” good 6 71-75% 7 66-70 % “3” satisfactory 7 66-70 % “3” satisfactory questions and mistaken but sometimes is inaccurate. 2.Answer is full but sometimes is not accurate or mistaken. Knowledge is obtained from text-books and partially from other sources. Practical skill is complete. 3.Answer is full, practical skill is complete but answer to the additional questions was not full. Mental outlook is not broad enough. 1.Answer within the limits of the program. Practical skill is not perfect enough. There are some mistakes in answering to the additional questions 2.Answer is sufficient within the limits of the program. Practical skills are perfect. No full answer to the additional questions, there are some mistakes 3. Answer is sufficient within the limits of the program. Practical skills are perfect. No answer to the additional questions. 1.Answer is within the limits of the program, practical skill is partially insufficient. Answer to the additional questions is fragmentary there are some mistakes. 2.Answer is sufficient, practical skill is partially correct, there are some mistakes. Answer to the additional questions is fragmentary, there are some mistakes. 3.Answer is correct, but not complete. Practical skill is not sufficient. No complete answer to the additional questions. 1.Answer is not sufficient enough. Practical skill is not complete enough. There are mistakes is answering to the additional questions. 2.Answer is in the limits of the program. There are mistakes in practical skill. Answer to the additional questions is fragmentary and there are mistakes. 3.Answer is in the limits of the program, but fragmentary. Practical skill is not full enough, there are mistakes. Answer to the additional questions is almost not correct. 1.Answer is correct, obtained practical skill is mastered partially, cannot answer to the additional questions, a narrow-minded person. 2.Knowledge of the program makes up 70% of the total volume. Practical skill is not complete. Answer to the additional questions is almost absent, there are many mistakes. 3.Knowledge of the program makes up 60% practical skill is completely mastered. Fragmentary answer is given to the additional 13 8 61-65 % “3” satisfactory 9 55-60 % “3” satisfactory 10 54% “2” unsatisfactory questions, a moderate active person. 1.Knowledge of the program makes up 60%. Experienced in practical skill. No answer to the additional questions. 2.Knowledge of the program makes up 60%. Experienced partially in practical there are mistakes in answering to the additional questions. 3.Knowledge of the program makes up about 50%. Practical skill is mastered. Almost no answer to the additional questions. 1.Theory and practical skills make up 50%, there are mistakes, Almost no answer to the additional questions. 2.Knowledge of the program makes up about 50%. Practical skill also makes up 50%. No answer to the additional questions, activity is moderate. 3.Knowledge of the program makes up 40%. Practical skill makes up 80%. No answer to the additional questions. 1.Correct answer makes up 20-30%, no exact answers of the theoretic material, practical skill is mastered partially. No answer to the additional questions. 2.No answer to the theory, practical skill is obtained. No answer to the additional questions. 9. Chronologic schedule of class hours № Steps of the studies 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Introduction Discussion of the theme of the lesson studies and estimation of the initial knowledge by students. Summary of the discussion Explanation by the given preparations, electron micrographs, schemes and drawings Obtaining practical skills independently Checking the level of the acquired theoretic knowledge and practical skills obtained at the practical classes, estimation the students activity Conclusion made by a tutor. Estimation of the students knowledge according to 100 points system and announcement of the results. Giving home task for the next lesson Kind of activity Interrogatory (inquest) explanation Lasting period 135 min 5 min 30 5 20 Studying of electron micrographs, schemes Control implemented of the obtained practical skills 55 Information questions for the self dependent study 10 10 14 10. Control questions: 1. Spinal cord structure. 2. Describe the topography and functions of nuclei of the medullar grey matter. 3. Where to are there directed the neorocytes’ axons of the motor nuclei in the ventral horns of spinal cord and what structure do they form? 4. What types of neurons are there found in the spinal cord? 5. What layers are there formed the cerebellar cortex of? 6. What types of neurons constitute the molecular layer of the cerebellar cortex? 7. Describe the structure of the cerebellar cortical piriform cells. 8. Describe the general micro-functional characteristics of the cell-granules. In which layer of the cerebellar cortex are they found? 9. Give the micro-functional characteristics of neurons of the large hemisphere cortex. 10.Describe the peculiar characteristics of the structure and function of large pyramidal neurons. For independent studying 11.Development of the large hemispheres cortex of a human being and the mammalians. 12.Hemoencephalic barrier, its morpho-functional characteristics. 13.Transmission of information from one neuron to another as a basis of the brain functional activity. 14.Inhibitory system of neurons in the large hemispheric and cerebellar cortex. 11.The Recommended literature The basic 1. Histology / under the editorship of J.I.Afanasiev, N.A.Jurina. М, Medicine, 1989. 2. Afanasiev J.I., Yurina N.A. Histology, М, 1989, 2004. 3. Almazov I.V., Sutulov L.S. The Atlas on histology and embryology. М, 1978. 4. Yeliseyev V. G, etc. The Atlas microscopic and ultramicroscopic structure of cells, tissues and organs. М, Medicine, 1970. 5. The Practical work on histology, cytology and embryology. Under the editorship of N.A.Jurina, A.I.Radostina. М, 1989. 6. Katsnelson Z.S., Richter I.D. Practical work on histology. М, 1963. 7. L.C.Junqueira, J.Carneiro, R.O.Kelley Basic Histology. 7-edition, London, 1992. 8. H.G.Burkitt, B.Young, J.W. Yeath Wheater’s Functional Histology. A Text and Colour Atlas. 1993. The supplementary 15 1. The Atlas-textbook on histology. The computer program under the editorship of S.L.Kuznetsov, etc. М. 1999. 2. Histology (introduction in a pathology) under the editorship of Ulumbekov E.G., Chelyshev Yu.А. М, 1997. 3. Histology, cytology and a embryology. The atlas (under the editorship of O.V.Volkova, J.K.Elezkiy). 1996. 4. The Management on histology. Under the editorship of R.K.Danilov, I.L.Bykov and I.A.Odinzov. Т.1 and 2. S.-Peterburg, 2001. 5. Hem А, Kormak D. Gistologija in 5 volumes. Transfer with English М, 1982-1983. 6. Laboratory researches at the rate of histology, cytology and embryology. Under the editorship of prof. J.I.Afanasiev. М, 1990. 7. Gartner L.P., Hiatt J.L. Color Atlas of Histology. - Baltimore. 1990. 8. Stevens A., Love J.S. Human Histology, 2nd edit - L.e.a.: Mosby, 1997. 9. Educational resources on histology on the Internet: www.histol <http://www.histol> chuvashia. com.; don hist.from ru.com.; medmir.ru; histology narod.ru; www.rezko.ru; http://medic.med.uth.tmc.edu/Lecture/Main/Griff5.htm; 16