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Chapter 3 Biopsychology and the Foundations of Neuroscience Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 This will be on every test from now on Psychology: The study of the nervous system, mental processes, and behavior Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Neuroscience and Biopsychology Neuroscience – field that focuses on the nervous system and the brain Biopsychology – studies the interaction of biology, behavior, and the environment i.e. a combo of neuroscience and psychology Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How Does the Body Communicate Internally? The body’s two communication systems, the nervous system and the endocrine system, both use chemical messengers to communicate with targets throughout the body Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Different types of neurons A. Purkinje cell B. Granule cell C. Motor neuron D. Tripolar neuron E. Pyramidal Cell F. Chandelier cell G. Spindle neuron H. Stellate cell Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Neuron Types of Neurons Sensory (afferent) neurons (carry messages from sense receptors towards the CNS [brain & spinal cord]) Motor (efferent) neurons (carry messages from CNS toward muscles and glands) Interneurons (carry messages between nerve cells, as in the brain and spinal cord) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Structure of a Neuron Dendrite: receives NTs and carries info to the soma Soma: the cell body Hillock: where soma meets axon Axon: the long fiber that conducts info Myelin sheath: insulation on axon Nodes of Ranvier: spaces in sheath Terminal button: the end of the neuron Vesicles: where NTs are stored Synapse: the gap thru which NTs pass Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Now try drawing your own neuron Label these parts: Soma, Dendrite, Axon, Myelin sheath, Nodes of Ranvier, Terminal buttons, Vesicles, Synapse Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Neural Impulse Resting potential: a neuron at rest Action potential: a neural impulse caused by K and Na ions (a neuron is a salty banana: Na on the outside, K on the inside) -initiates at or near the hillock All-or-nothing principle: a neuron fires fully or not at all Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Other types of cells Glial cells • Provide structural support for neurons • Help in forming new synapses • Form myelin sheath (specifically, Schwann cells) • Mirror neurons Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Neurotransmitters Neurotransmitters – Chemical messengers that carry neural messages across the synapse Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Neurotransmitters Normal Function: Serotonin brain: sensations of pleasure and reward-body: voluntary movement Norepinephrine Problems with Imbalance: Acetylcholine Schizophrenia, Parkinson’s disease Dopamine GABA Glutamate (ine) Endorphins Substances that Affect: Cocaine, amphetamines, meth, Ritalin, alcohol, marijuana Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Neurotransmitters Dopamine Serotonin Normal Function: Regulates sleep and dreaming, mood, aggression, and sexual behavior Norepinephrine Problems with Imbalance: Acetylcholine GABA Depression, some anxiety disorders, OCD Glutamate (ine) Substances that Affect: Endorphins Prozac, Ecstasy, hallucinogenics (e.g. LSD) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Neurotransmitters Dopamine Serotonin Normal Function: Controls heart rate, arousal, alertness and appetite—it’s adrenaline Norepinephrine Problems with Imbalance: Acetylcholine GABA Glutamate (ine) Endorphins High blood pressure, depression Substances that Affect: Tricyclic antidepressants, beta blockers Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Neurotransmitters Dopamine Serotonin Norepinephrine Acetylcholine Normal Function: Primary transmitter of CNS for muscle contractions; involved in learning and memory Problems with Imbalance: GABA muscular disorders, Alzheimer’s disease Glutamate (ine) Substances that Affect: Endorphins Nicotine (agonist), botulism toxin (antagonist) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Neurotransmitters Dopamine Serotonin Norepinephrine Acetylcholine GABA Glutamate (ine) Endorphins Normal Function: Most common inhibitory neurotransmitter; reduces excessive brain activity Problems with Imbalance: Anxiety, insomnia, epilepsy Substances that Affect: Barbiturates, tranquilizers (e.g. Valium) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Neurotransmitters Dopamine Normal Function: Norepinephrine Excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in learning and memory (long term potentiation) Acetylcholine Problems with Imbalance: GABA Migraines, epilepsy, brain damage after stroke, ALS Glutamate (ine) Substances that Affect: Endorphins PCP (angel dust) Serotonin Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Neurotransmitters Dopamine Normal Function: Serotonin control of pain Norepinephrine Problems with Imbalance: Acetylcholine Lowered levels resulting from opiate addiction GABA Glutamate (ine) Endorphins Substances that Affect: Opiates: opium, heroin, morphine, methadone Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Drugs Some drugs are: Agonists: chemical that amplifies NT response (e.g. heroin) Antagonists: chemical that blocks NT response (e.g. Botox) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Talk to your aisle partner Play the “Which neurotransmitter are you?” game here. Develop a mnemonic device for each NT, what it does, and a disorder related to the NT. I will ask you to share in a few moments. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Videos to help understand NTs Mouse Party: How certain drugs affect the synapses and the brain. See the Crash Course on neurotransmitters here. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Organization of the Nervous System Nervous system Peripheral nervous system Autonomic nervous system Sympathetic nervous system Central nervous system (CNS) Somatic nervous system Parasympathetic nervous system Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Nervous system CNS: central=spine and brain Spine: controls reflexes Brain: voluntary movements PNS: peripheral=outside delivery service for CNS SNS: somatic=soma=body controlled by motor cortex afferent: signal in (sensory) efferent: signal out (motor) ANS: autonomic=independent=no consciousness controlled by brain stem sympathetic=arousing parasympathetic=calming Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Endocrine System (the body’s chemical messenger system) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Endocrine System Pituitary gland – Master gland that produces hormones (a chemical signal in your blood) influencing the secretions of all other endocrine glands; produces HGH and oxytocin (the love hormone) attached to (and responds to signals from) hypothalamus Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Other glands and hormones Pineal gland: releases melatonin, which helps regulate sleep Adrenal glands: adrenaline (epinephrine) and cortisol —stress hormones Testes: testosterone/Ovaries: estrogen Thyroid: thyroxin regulates metabolism Pancreas: releases insulin, which regulates blood sugar Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Windows on the Brain Brain scans – Recordings of the brain’s electrical or biochemical activity at specific sites Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Windows on the Brain EEG (electroencephalograph) – Device for recording brain waves, typically by electrodes placed on the scalp Brain waves –Patterns of electrical activity generated by the brain Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Windows on the Brain CT scanning (computerized tomography)—basically a cross-sectional x-ray Best for viewing bone injuries, diagnosing lung and chest problems, and detecting cancers PROS: Takes only a few minutes Less expensive than other scans CONS: Can’t do too often—radiation Can take an hour to get results Not very detailed CT scan of a brain hemorrhage Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Windows on the Brain MRI: (magnetic resonance imaging)—a 3D image best for looking at soft tissue like ligaments, tendons and brain tumors, spinal cord PROS: No radiation Much higher soft tissue detail than CT scan CONS: More expensive Takes at least 30 minutes fMRI: a 4D image (time) of glucose metabolism Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Windows on the Brain PET scanning (positron emission tomography) – useful to detect tumors and seizures PROS: Measures FUNCTION (how something is working), not just location 3D and in color CONS: requires radiation injection Most expensive scan Takes up to four hours Patient can move during a PET scan, but the images are not as hi-res as an fMRI Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Quiz on scans EEG, CT, MRI, fMRI, PET Which scans show activity/function in the brain? EEG, fMRI, PET Which are in color? fMRI, PET Which use radiation? CT, PET Which show the brain itself? CT, MRI, fMRI, PET Which would be MOST useful for showing soft tissue? MRI Which are 3D? CT, MRI, fMRI, PET Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Three Layers of the Brain Brain stem and cerebellum Drive vital functions, such as heart rate, breathing, digestion Limbic system Adds emotions, complex motives, increased memory abilities Cerebrum Enables reasoning, planning, creating, problem solving Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Brain Stem and Cerebellum Thalamus (relays sensorimotor info to the cortex; regulates consciousness) Pons (bridge [to cerebellum]) (sleeping, MANY other autonomic functions) Cerebellum (coordination and timing of motor control, balance) Brain stem (regulates CNS and ANS, pretty much all your vital functions) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Brain Stem Reticular activating system/ aka reticular formation (arousal; sleep/wake) Medulla oblongata (cardiovascular, breathing and puking) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Limbic System Hypothalamus – links nervous system to endocrine system via pituitary; regulates temperature, hunger & circadian rhythms TRIVIA: Together, the thalamus and the hypothalamus are called the diencephalon. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Limbic System Amygdala – Involved in motivation and emotion; particularly fear and aggression Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Limbic System Hippocampus – Involved in establishing long-term memories Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Limbic System Basal Ganglia (the conductor) voluntary motor control and procedural learning. Current theories suggest the BG execute action selection--that is, the decision of which behavior to execute Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 3D brain Now let’s take a look at all these parts on 3D Brain Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Review Brain stem: vital functions Pons: sleep Reticular formation: arousal Medulla: vomiting Cerebellum: coordination and balance Hypothalamus: hormones Thalamus: switchboard Hippocampus: memory Amygdala: emotion Basal ganglia: conductor Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Cerebrum Cerebrum – Topmost layer of the brain Cerebral cortex – Thin gray-matter covering of the cerebrum; thinking and perceiving Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Four Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex Frontal lobes (thinking; motor cortex) Parietal lobes (somatosensory cortex and spatial relationships) Occipital lobes (contain visual cortex) Temporal lobes (memory, hearing [language] emotion [limbic system]) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Homunculus Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Association areas Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Plasticity Plasticity – the brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways See what happens when the right hemisphere is removed from a young girl’s head. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How the brain puts language together Both in left hemisphere: Wernicke’s area: small region in the temporal lobe responsible for understanding language Broca’s area: small region in the frontal lobe responsible for speech and grammar A synthesis of the two language areas Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Language and the Brain Aphasia – The loss of speech caused by brain damage >Wernicke’s aphasia >Broca’s aphasia Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Split Brain Cerebral hemispheres – The two halves of the cerebrum, connected by the corpus callosum Cerebral dominance – Tendency of each brain hemisphere to exert control over different functions Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Specialization of the Cerebral Hemispheres Left Hemisphere Right Hemisphere • Spontaneous speaking and writing • Responses to complex commands • Word recognition • Memory for words and numbers • Sequences of movements • Repetitive but not spontaneous speaking • Responses to simple commands • Facial recognition • Memory for shapes and music • Spatial interpretation Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Which face looks happier? Most people choose the face on the left side, because our right hemisphere, which is better for facial recognition, registers the smiling left side of the face. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Experiment Get a writing utensil in each hand. I will flash two shapes. Try to draw the shape on the left with your left hand at the SAME TIME that you draw the shape on your right with your right hand. DO NOT look at your hands. Just look at the shapes. Ready?... Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How did you do? Let’s try it again with two different shapes. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How did you do? Why is that so hard? Because our hemispheres are communicating with each other across the corpus collosum Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Split Brain Anesthetic to each hemisphere causes changes to language and movement—video here. Split-brain patients – Individuals who have had the corpus callosum surgically severed The future of neuroscience in light activated neurons? Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Wanna Look at a Real Brain? If you are squeamish, you might want to look away or step into the hall for six minutes… Here, a scientist shows us a brain from a recent autopsy. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Putting it all together: Describe the parts of the nervous system /endocrine system/brain activated in this situation and what they are doing in Crazy Eddie’s body: Crazy Eddie, the professional wrestler, is in the ring wrestling. The crowd is yelling and his opponent is taunting him. Eddie yells back at his opponent. The two of them are out of breath and sweating profusely. They continue their well-orchestrated series of wrestling moves. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Twin studies Heritability Epigenetics Molecular genetics Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How Are Genes and Behavior Linked? Evolution has shaped psychological processes because it favors genetic variations that produce adaptive behavior Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How did the brain develop? Natural selection – The driving force behind evolution, by which the environment “selects” the fittest organisms the gradual process by which biological traits become either more or less common in a population Evolution – The process of biological change in a species as it adapts to its environment -change in the inherited characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Mutations Nature/nurture Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Evolution and Natural Selection Why do we like sweets and fats, and dislike bitter foods? Why do we sleep at night and not during the day? Why do men like shapely women? Why do women like strong men? Evolutionary psychology– Sees psychology in terms of its genetic adaptations for survival and reproduction A video about evolutionary psychology See Steven Pinker’s TED talk on the topic Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How evolutionary psychology “works” Evolutionary psychologists use several strategies to develop and test hypotheses about whether a psychological trait is likely to be an evolved adaptation. Cross-cultural Consistency. Characteristics that have been demonstrated to be cross cultural human universals such as smiling, crying, facial expressions are presumed to be evolved psychological adaptations. Several evolutionary psychologists have collected massive datasets from cultures around the world to assess cross-cultural universality. Function to Form (or "problem to solution"). The fact that males, but not females, risk potential misidentification of genetic offspring (referred to as "paternity insecurity") led evolutionary psychologists to hypothesize that, compared to females, male jealousy would be more focused on sexual, rather than emotional, infidelity. Form to Function (reverse-engineering – or "solution to problem"). Morning sickness, and associated aversions to certain types of food, during pregnancy seemed to have the characteristics of an evolved adaptation (complexity and universality). Margie Profet hypothesized that the function was to avoid the ingestion of toxins during early pregnancy that could damage fetus (but which are otherwise likely to be harmless to healthy non-pregnant women). Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 End of Chapter 3 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007