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DNA to Protein Overview
DNA to Protein Overview PK
Activities (2)
Participant Guide
www.scme-nm.org
Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME)
University of New Mexico
MEMS bioMEMS Topic
DNA to Protein Overview
Learning Module
This Learning Module consists of the following:
Knowledge Probe (KP) or pre-quiz
DNA to Protein Primary Knowledge (Reading Material)
Protein Structure and Function Activity
Gene Transcription Activity
Final Assessment
Target audiences: High School, Community College, University
Support for this work was provided by the National Science Foundation's Advanced Technological
Education (ATE) Program through Grants #DUE 1205138.
This Learning Module was developed in conjunction with Bio-Link, a National Science Foundation
Advanced Technological Education (ATE) Center for Biotechnology @ www.bio-link.org.
Any opinions, findings and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the
authors and creators, and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.
Copyright © by the Southwest Center for Microsystems Education
and
The Regents of the University of New Mexico
Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME)
800 Bradbury Drive SE, Suite 235
Albuquerque, NM 87106-4346
Phone: 505-272-7150
Website: www.scme-nm.org
DNA to Protein Overview
Knowledge Probe (Pre-Test)
Participant Guide
Introduction
This knowledge probe is a short quiz to help you to identify your current understanding of
proteins, and the biology processes involved in making proteins from DNA. Please answer the
following to the best of your knowledge.
There are 14 questions.
1. Which of the following BEST describes “proteins”?
a. The linear sequences of information found with a gene
b. Polymer biological molecules that are subunits of amino acids
c. Polymers composed of subunit known as amino acids
d. A region of a DNA sequence to which RNA polymerase binds
2. Which of the following is NOT a function of protein?
a. Transport and storage of atoms and molecules within cells
b. Catalyst for mRNA replication
c. Protect the body from foreign particles
d. Provide structure and support for cells
3. What are amino acids composed of?
a. Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen
b. Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and phosphate
c. Proteins, chromosomes, oxygen, and nitrogen
d. Carbon, proteins, oxygen and nitrogen
4. The process where DNA is transcribed to RNA and RNA is translated to a polypeptide is
referred to as the ….
a. Genetic Code
b. Crick’s Process of DNA to Protein
c. Hershey-Chase Process
d. Central Dogma of Biology
5. The nitrogenous bases of RNA are…
a. Adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine
b. Adenine, thymine, uracil, and cytosine
c. Adenine, uracil, guanine, and cytosine
d. Uracil, thymine, guanine and cytosine
6. In the DNA to Protein process, the step that is defined as “DNA-directed RNA synthesis”
is called…
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DNA to Protein Knowledge Probe
a. Transcription
b. Elongation
c. Initiation
d. Translation
7. In the DNA to Protein process, the step where the mRNA is translated to protein or
polypeptide is called…
a. Transcription
b. Elongation
c. Initiation
d. Translation
8. During the DNA to Protein process, the __________ serves as the template for the
creation of a protein and is responsible for transferring genetic information from the
nucleus to the cytoplasm.
a. DNA
b. mRNA
c. tRNA
d. rRNA
9. During the DNA to Protein process, the _________ carries specific amino acids for
incorporation into a growing polypeptide chain.
a. DNA
b. mRNA
c. tRNA
d. rRNA
10. The triplet code contained within mRNA is a series of three adjacent bases in one
polynucleotide chain. This code is called a ….
a. tRNAmet
b. codon
c. phe
d. met
11. Which of the following BEST explains why the genetic code is “almost” universal by all
known organisms (i.e., human, animals, plants, fungi archaea, bacteria and viruses.)?
Small variations in the code to not exist in…
a. mitochondria and certain microbes.
b. mitochondria and ribosome.
c. cytoplasm and centrosome.
d. nucleus and cytoskeleton.
12. What components make up a ribosome?
a. Amino acids and tRNA
b. mRNA and cytoplasm
c. Ribosomal RNA and amino acids
d. Ribosomal RNA and proteins
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DNA to Protein Knowledge Probe
13. The process which converts a polypeptide into its characteristic and functional threedimensional structure is called protein…
a. folding
b. elongation
c. termination
d. translation
14. A micro-sized device that uses an enzyme linked to an antibody to detect specific
proteins is called…
a. GeneChip
b. RNA chip
c. Nucleic acid array
d. ELISA
Support for this work was provided by the National Science Foundation's Advanced Technological
Education (ATE) Program.
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DNA to Protein Knowledge Probe
DNA to Protein Overview
Primary Knowledge
Participant Guide
Description and Estimated Time to Complete
This unit provides information needed to understand how the digitally encoded information in DNA
is translated into a functional protein that can be used for diagnostics, analysis and measurements in
medical applications. This information will help you to better understand the applications of MEMS
devices within the medical field.
This is the basic knowledge needed to research and understand protein structure and function. This
information will also be used to transcribe and translate a gene in the related activity.
Estimated Time to Complete
Allow approximately 15 minutes.
Introduction
Most of the properties of living organisms ultimately arise from a
class of molecules known as proteins. Proteins are polymers
composed of subunits known as amino acids. These linear polymers
fold into specific three-dimensional structures with specific, unique
functions. Amino acids dictate the structure of the protein. The linear
sequence of information found within a gene in an organism's DNA
dictates the order of amino acids.
Many applications take advantage of the functions of proteins. Here
are a couple of applications that are used today:
 Diabetics rely on glucometer strips that contain specific protein
enzymes capable of catalyzing reactions that aid in determining
Protein Tertiary Structure
blood glucose levels.
[Image courtesy of RCSB
 Home pregnancy tests rely on proteins called antibodies found
Protein Data Bank]
in the urine of pregnant women. These proteins react with the
coating on the pregnancy test strip enabling a positive or negative result. (See graphic below)
Home Pregnancy Test
MEMS Applications within Proteomics
The emerging field of proteomics is analyzing the complex range of protein expression within cells.
Biologists use this information to create protein microarrays on chips. These arrays investigate both
the interactions of the arrayed proteins with other proteins as well as their potential for chemical
modification. These protein microarrays and their electronic interface are microelectromechanical
systems or MEMS, or more specifically, bioMEMS.
Another bioMEMS application in proteomics is ChIP/chip analysis. This bioMEMS provides
researchers the ability to make global measurements of protein/DNA interaction.
These methodologies rely on an understanding of the way in which information encoded digitally in
DNA translates into a functional protein. This unit helps to answer these questions:
 How did researchers crack this genetic code?
 Is the genetic code universal?
 What do we know about information flow within a cell?
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DNA to Protein Overview
Objectives
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Describe the genetic code.
Explain the "central dogma" of biology: DNA → RNA → Protein (polypeptide), and differentiate
the separate parts that comprise the dogma.
Describe the function of the components of Protein Translation.
Key Terms (Definitions at end of guide)
Alkaptonuria
Amino acid
Antibody
Anticodon
ChIP/chip analysis
Codon
Enzyme
Ferment
Genetic code
Promoter
Protein
Proteome
Proteomics
Ribonucleotide
Ribosome
Template
Translation
Transcription
Transcription factor
Wobble
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DNA to Protein Overview
The Central Dogma of Biology
Studies that provided clues to the idea for "The Central Dogma of Biology":
In 1902, Archibald Garrod, an English physician, treated an infant whose diapers had a dark reddish
black stain. He recognized this stain as a rare condition named alkaptonuria. The urine of patients
with this condition turns black upon exposure to air.
Garrod and his colleagues did not stop at the diagnosis. They proposed that the infant was missing a
"certain ferment" (enzyme) that the body would normally use to break down the alkapton prior to
excretion. They also knew that alkaptonuria was a recessive genetic disorder. Substituting enzyme
for "ferment", Garrod and his colleagues described a connection between a gene and a protein.
In the 1940's, George Beadle and Edward Tatum exposed the spores of the fungi Neurospora to xrays, and isolated the mutant progeny. They concluded that one gene specifies one enzyme.
Based on these and other previous findings, in 1957
Francis Crick proposed that genetic information flows in
one-direction, from DNA to RNA to protein. Crick named
this proposal the "Central Dogma" of biology.
Today, the Central Dogma is often revised to DNA is
transcribed to RNA, and RNA is translated to a polypeptide
(see graphic). This revision takes into account functional
proteins that are composed of more than a single
polypeptide. Exceptions do occur, and one major
exception to this flow of information is in the family of
Retroviruses. These viruses encode a polymerase, reverse
transcriptase, which uses a RNA template to make a DNA
copy.
The RNA Molecule
RNA is a similar molecule to DNA with some very specific
differences. Both RNA and DNA are long polymeric molecules
with a ladder backbone and rungs of nitrogenous bases. In RNA, the
sugar in the ladder is ribose rather than deoxyribose (as in DNA),
and the nitrogenous base uracil replaces the thymine found in DNA.
RNA is single-stranded and DNA is double-stranded as shown in
the graphic.
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DNA to Protein Overview
RNA's Role in "DNA to Protein"
At least three types of RNA are known to be involved in the information flow from DNA to
protein: mRNA, tRNA and ribosomal RNA. We will identify these RNA as we move through
the Central Dogma (DNA to RNA to Protein).
The first step of DNA to RNA is transcription. Transcription is defined as DNA-directed RNA
synthesis. It requires a DNA template, RNA polymerase (an enzyme that produces RNA), and
ribonucleotide subunits. Transcription occurs in three phases: initiation, elongation and
termination.
Initiation requires a promoter and RNA polymerase. The promoter contains the initiation site
and tells RNA polymerase where to start, which strand to read, and which direction to take from
the start. RNA polymerase then elongates the transcript until termination occurs at specific
base sequences.
Transcription produces a RNA complementary to
the DNA. This RNA is called the messenger RNA
(mRNA). In eukaryotic cells, the mRNA leaves
the nucleus and enters the cytoplasm (see graphic).
In the cytoplasm, the mRNA serves as the template
for the creation of a polypeptide (protein).
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DNA to Protein Overview
This second step of the Central Dogma, RNA to protein, is known as translation where the
mRNA is translated to protein or polypeptide.
During translation another type of RNA, transfer RNA
(tRNA), acts as an adapter molecule that recognizes the
message of mRNA. The tRNA carries specific amino
acids for incorporation into a growing polypeptide
chain.
A third RNA, ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is part of the
ribosome that is also essential for translation of the
mRNA. (There are other RNAs of increasing interest
to molecular biologists, and these small RNAs function
in the control of plant and animal gene expression.
These small RNAs are not part of this discussion.)
In summary…
The Central Dogma of Biology
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DNA to Protein Overview
The Genetic Code
Although the flow of information was postulated in 1957 via the Central Dogma of Biology, the
genetic code of DNA was not deciphered until the early 1960s. In 1961, artificial mRNAs were
made and placed in a cell-free translation system. (Remember that the mRNA contains the
information and instructions from the translation: mRNA to Protein). The first mRNA
consisted only of uridine. The translation product was a polymer of phenylalanine (phe).
Researchers concluded that the code contained within mRNA was a triplet code or Codon (a
series of three adjacent bases in one polynucleotide chain). UUU encodes the amino acid phe.
This can be re-stated as UUU is the codon for phe. (Locate UUU in the chart below.)
The Genetic Code
Codon identification from mRNA
The remainder of the code was rapidly deciphered. Creating all possible triplet codons from the
4 bases of RNA (U, C, A, and G) yields 64 codons, more than enough to encode the 20
common amino acids (Phe, Leu, Ile, Met, Val, Ser…). AUG is the "start" codon and specifies
methionine (met). (Locate it on the chart and on the mRNA molecule.) Three stop codons are
UAA, UAG, and UGA. These are also known as nonsense codons as they do not code for any
amino acid. Note in the chart that multiple codons specify the same amino acid. This makes
the code redundant, but not ambiguous. Also, the genetic code is nearly universal.
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DNA to Protein Overview
The Role of tRNA in Translation
From a previous discussion you learned that
translation links the mRNA, appropriate
tRNAs and ribosomes to produce the final
product, a polypeptide. The tRNA (see figure
of tRNA) contains an anticodon (UAC) and
carries an amino acid (CCA). The
conformation of tRNA allows it to correctly
interact with the ribosome.
It is of interest that the cell does not produce
61 different tRNAs. Researchers have found
that the specificity for the base at the 3'-end of
the codon (mRNA) and the 5'-end of the
anticodon (tRNA) is not always strictly
observed. This phenomenon is called
"wobble". An example of wobble is the
recognition of three alanine codons, GCA, GCC, and GCU, by the same tRNA.
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DNA to Protein Overview
Protein Translation (mRNA to Protein)
Protein Translation
Diagram showing the translation of mRNA and the synthesis of proteins by a ribosome
[Image courtesy of LadyofHats]
During protein translation amino acids are linked together to form a polypeptide chain which
will later be folded into a protein. The ribosome is the workbench or factory for protein
translation. It consists of a large and a small subunit (see graphic – Protein Translation). A
ribosome can use any mRNA and all species of tRNA to make a polypeptide product.
Translation begins with the formation of an initiation complex consisting of the small ribosomal
subunit, mRNA and tRNAmet. Next, the large subunit binds and elongation begins. The
anticodon of a tRNA molecule can form chemical bonds (i.e. base pair), with the mRNA's three
letter codon. Thus the tRNA acts as the translator between mRNA and protein by bringing the
specific amino acid coded for by the mRNA codon.5 When the stop codon is reached, a protein
release factor breaks the bond between the polypeptide and the tRNA on the ribosome.
Signal sequences often target the growing polypeptide to a specific cellular location. For
example, a membrane protein is directed to the cell membrane as it would not want to be in the
cytoplasm of the cell.
Most illustrations show a spaghetti-like
strand of amino acids flowing away from
a ribosome, but proteins begin folding as
they are translated. Protein Folding is the
process which converts a polypeptide into
its characteristic and functional threedimensional structure.
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DNA to Protein Overview
Protein Folding
The Four Levels of Protein Structure
[Modified from freely available illustration provided by the Talking Glossary of Genetics]
Protein folding is complex, and can be described at four different levels (refer to graphic
above). The first level (Primary Structure) is simply the chain of amino acids (the output of
protein translation). The second level (Secondary Structure) consists of the alpha-helix and the
beta-pleated sheet. This level occurs when the sequence of amino acids are linked by hydrogen
bonds. The third level (Tertiary Structure) consists of the additional folding and interactions
between specific R-groups on amino acids, including disulfide bond formation, aggregation of
hydrophobic side chains, van der Waals forces and ionic bond formation. The fourth level
(Quarternary Structure) defines proteins that consist of multiple polypeptide subunits.
Proper folding is essential for protein function. If an enzyme misfolds, the active site may not
form, and the enzyme would not be able to function as a biocatalyst. In similar ways, if a
structural protein misfolds, it also would not be able to carry out a normal structural function.
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DNA to Protein Overview
BioMEMS, DNA and Proteins
The knowledge that we have gained about cells, DNA, RNA, proteins and the various
biomolecules that make up human tissue has led to many new innovations. As previously
mentioned, bioMEMS are used in the biomedical field for analyzing specific biomolecules in a
sample (e.g., the home pregnancy test and insulin monitoring) and for delivering minute amount
of drugs (e.g., insulin delivery). In addition, MEMS technology and nanotechnology are used
to develop the biomedical assay (a device used to determine the amount of a particular
constituent of a mixture, or of the potency of a drug). Such devices create surfaces that study
proteins, DNA, various antibodies, and synthetic drug interactions with tissue. The following
biochip was developed by Argonne National Laboratories. Each biochip has hundreds to
thousands of gel drops on a glass, plastic or membrane substrate. The biochip system can
identify infectious disease strains in less than 15 minutes when testing protein arrays and in less
than two hours when testing nucleic acid arrays. 8
Biochip slide for testing protein arrays
[Image courtesy of Argonne National Laboratories]
MEMS technology and our knowledge of biomolecules have provided the ability to study
protein-protein interactions on the basis of binding events. Such devices include peptide-loaded
beads, microplates, pins and other flat micro-surfaces like membranes and chips.9
One such device is ELISA (Enzyme-Linked Immuno-Sorbent
Assay). ELISA (see figure) is a sensitive immunoassay that uses
an enzyme linked to an antibody or antigen as a marker for the
detection of a specific protein, especially an antigen or
antibody.10 It has been widely used for detection and
quantification of biological agents (mainly proteins and
polypeptides). Its high selectivity and sensitivity draw great
attractions in clinical, food safety, and environmental
applications.11
BioLOC's CD-ELISATM
[Printed with permission of BioLOC LLC]
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DNA to Protein Overview
Summary
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The Central Dogma of Biology states that genetic information flows from DNA to RNA to
protein.
Deciphering the genetic code has allowed scientists to translate the sequence of DNA into the
sequence of amino acids that comprise the primary structure of a protein or polypeptide.
Protein structure is related to function, and proteins fulfill a wide diversity of functions within
cells.
Proteins are also an integral part of many diagnostic aids and devices.
Microarrays enable the identification and study of specific proteins within small samples.
Food For Thought / Answers
1. How does RNA differ from DNA?
2. DNA is composed of 2 strands, of which only one strand is used as a template for RNA synthesis
for a specific gene. By what mechanism is the correct strand chosen?
3. What is a codon?
4. How are proteins directed to the correct compartment within a cell?
5. Given the types of chemical interactions that promote and maintain protein structure, can you
think of ways to disrupt or break those interactions?
References
1
Fundamentals of BioMEMs and Medical Microdevices. Steven S. Saliterman. Wiley
Interscience. 2006.
2
Life: The Science of Biology, 8th edition, Sadava et.al. Freeman. 2007.
3
Bioinquiry, 3rd edition, Pruitt and Underwood. Wiley. 2006.
4
Genetics: From Genes to Genomes, Hartwell et.al., McGraw Hill. 2008.
5
Translation. Nobleprize.org.
http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/medicine/dna/b/translation/translation.html
6
"Learn Genetics". University of Utah. http://learn.genetics.utah.edu
7
The BioTechnology Project at MATC. Madison Area Technical College.
8
“Biochip technology could become standard diagnostic tool for human, veterinary medicine”.
Argonne News. Dec 20, 2006.
9
"Synthetic peptides, peptide pools and peptide arrays for the analysis of B- and T-cell
responses". Holger Wenschuh, PhD. JPT Peptide Technologies, Berlin.
10
"ELISA". The Free Dictionary. http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/ELISA
11
"CD-ELISA". BioMEMS/NMEMS. Lai, Siyi. 2004
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0065242306420072
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DNA to Protein Overview
Related SCME Learning Module, Activity and Assessment
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DNA Overview Learning Module
DNA to Protein Activity
DNA to Protein Assessment
Glossary of Key Terms
Alkaptonuria - An inherited condition that causes urine to turn black when exposed to air.
Ochronosis, a buildup of dark pigment in connective tissues such as cartilage and skin, is also
characteristic of the disorder.
Amino acid - The subunit, building blocks of proteins. There are 20 commonly occurring amino
acids.
Antibody - A specific subset of proteins made in response to an antigen (a foreign substance) as part
of the immune response.
Anticodon - Nucleotide triplets on tRNA that recognize codons on the mRNA by complementary
base pairing and wobble.
ChIP/chip analysis - Also known as genome wide localization, this technique identifies all the
genomic sites at which a transcription factor expressed in a particular cell type may bind to DNA.
Codon - A nucleotide triplet that specifies a particular amino acid to be inserted in a growing
polypeptide chain during translation.
Enzyme - A molecule that functions as a biological catalyst, and lowers the energy of activation of a
metabolic reaction. Most, but not all, are protein in nature, and activity depends on their maintaining
a specific conformation.
Ferment - Any of a group of living organisms, as yeasts, molds, and certain bacteria, that cause
fermentation.
Genetic code - The information contained in a gene within the DNA that specifies the synthesis of a
protein. The code refers to the sequence of bases that ultimately determine the amino acid sequence
of a protein.
Promoter - A region of DNA sequence to which RNA polymerase or associated transcription factors
bind.
Protein - Large polymer composed of hundreds to thousands of amino acid subunits linked together
in a specific order into long chains. Proteins are required for the structure, function, and regulation of
an organism's cells, tissues and organs.
Proteome - The complete set of proteins encoded by a genome.
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DNA to Protein Overview
Proteomics - A complete analysis of all, or most, of the proteins in a particular cell type or organism.
Ribonucleotide - The subunit building block of RNA.
Ribosome - Cytoplasmic structures composed of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and proteins. They are sites
of protein synthesis.
RNA Polymerase – An enzyme that produces RNA. A polymerase that catalyzes the synthesis of a
complementary strand of RNA from a DNA template, or, in some viruses, from an RNA template.
Template - A strand of DNA or ENA that is used as a model by DNA or RNA polymerase or by
reverse transcriptase for the creation of a new complementary strand of DNA or RNA.
Translation - The process in which the mRNA directs the synthesis of a polypeptide from amino
acids according to the genetic code.
Transcription - The conversion of DNA-encoded information to an RNA equivalent.
Transcription factor - A protein or RNA whose binding or indirect association with a promoter helps
regulate the timing, location and level of a specific gene's transcription.
Wobble - The ability of the 5'-most nucleotide of an anticodon to interact with more than one
nucleotide at the 3'-end of codons. This helps explain the degeneracy of the genetic code.
Disclaimer
The information contained herein is considered to be true and accurate; however the Southwest Center for
Microsystems Education (SCME) makes no guarantees concerning the authenticity of any statement. SCME
accepts no liability for the content of this unit, or for the consequences of any actions taken on the basis of the
information provided.
Support for this work was provided by the National Science Foundation's Advanced Technological
Education (ATE) Program.
This Learning Module was developed in conjunction with Bio-Link, a National Science Foundation
Advanced Technological Education (ATE) Center for Biotechnology @ www.bio-link.org.
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DNA to Protein Overview
Activity: Protein Structure and Function
DNA to Protein Overview
Participant Guide
Description and Estimated Time to Complete
This activity provides the processes and tasks for reviewing protein structure and function. This
information is important is improving your understanding of how protein and MEMS work
together in bioMEMS devices.
Estimated Time to Complete
Allow approximately one hour
Introduction
Most of the properties of living organisms ultimately arise from a class of molecules known as
proteins. Proteins are polymers composed of subunits known as amino acids. These linear
polymers fold into specific three-dimensional structures with specific, unique functions. Amino
acids dictate the structure of the protein. The linear sequence of information found within a gene
in an organism's DNA dictates the order of amino acids.
The emerging field of proteomics is analyzing the complex range of protein expression within
cells. Biologists use this information to create micro-sized protein arrays on chips. These arrays
investigate both the interactions of the arrayed proteins with other proteins as well as their
potential for chemical modification. These micro-sized protein arrays and their electronic
interface are part of microsystems technology and a bioMEMS device.
This activity allows you to further your understanding of protein structure and its complexity.
Activity Objectives and Outcomes
Activity Objectives
 List the functions of proteins.
 Describe an application in which proteins are used in microsystems technology.
Activity Outcomes
Upon completion of this activity you will have gained an understanding of the information flow
within a biological system as an aid to understanding bioMEMS applications.
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Protein Structure and Function Activity
Activity: Protein Structure and Function
Description
This activity provides more in-depth information on proteins, their function and structure.
Procedure:
1. Step through the lesson “What is a Protein?” from Learn Genetics, University of Utah.
(http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/molecules/proteins/ )
2. View the video “What is a Protein?” from the RCSB Protein DataBank.
(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qBRFIMcxZNM )
3. Review the series of YouTube videos at this link:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ml0OqAUzEXU&list=PL1AD35ADA1E93EB6F
4. Answer the Post-Activity Questions. (You may need to do additional research to correctly
answer the questions.) Be sure to list your source(s) to support your answers.
Activity: Post-Activity Questions
1. Name at least five (5) proteins classification by biological function?
2. Why does each protein have a unique chemical composition and structure?
3. What are amino acids composed of?
4. What are the 4 types of R groups?
5. What two methods of protein separation separate proteins by hydrophobicity?
6. What is a bioMEMS application in which the hydrophobicity characteristics of a protein might
be advantageous?
7. Create your own graphic that illustrates the Central Dogma of Biology and briefly describe each
step.
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Protein Structure and Function Activity
Summary
Deciphering the genetic code has allowed scientists to translate the sequence of DNA into the
sequence of amino acids that comprise the primary structure of a protein or polypeptide. Protein
structure is related to function, and proteins fulfill a wide diversity of functions within cells.
Proteins are also an integral part of many diagnostic aids and devices.
References
1.
Fundamentals of BioMEMs and Medical Microdevices. Steven S. Saliterman. Wiley
Interscience. 2006.
2.
Life: The Science of Biology, 8th edition. Sadava et.al. Freeman. 2007.
3.
Bioinquiry, 3rd edition. Pruitt and Underwood. Wiley. 2006.
4.
Genetics: From Genes to Genomes, Hartwell et.al., McGraw Hill. 2008.
5.
Learn Genetics, Genetic Science Learning Center. University of Utah.
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu
6.
The Biotechnology Project. Madison Area Technology College. Proteins Unit 1: Why
Proteins?
Support for this work was provided by the National Science Foundation's Advanced Technological
Education (ATE) Program.
This Learning Module was developed in conjunction with Bio-Link, a National Science Foundation
Advanced Technological Education (ATE) Center for Biotechnology @ www.bio-link.org.
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Protein Structure and Function Activity
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Protein Structure and Function Activity
Activity: Gene Transcription
DNA to Protein Overview
Participant Guide
Description and Estimated Time to Complete
This activity provides a mechanism that allows you to apply your knowledge in transcribing and
translating a gene. While completing this activity, visualize how this information can be applied
to bioMEMS applications.
Estimated Time to Complete
Allow approximately one hour.
Introduction
Most of the properties of living organisms ultimately arise from a class of molecules known as
proteins. Proteins are polymers composed of subunits known as amino acids. These linear
polymers fold into specific three-dimensional structures with specific, unique functions. Amino
acids dictate the structure of the protein. The linear sequence of information found within a gene
in an organism's DNA dictates the order of amino acids.
The emerging field of proteomics is analyzing the complex range of protein expression within
cells. Biologists use this information to create micro protein arrays on chips. These arrays
investigate both the interactions of the arrayed proteins with other proteins as well as their
potential for chemical modification. These micro protein arrays and their electronic interface are
microelectromechanical systems or MEMS.
The design and fabrication of MEMS rely on an understanding of the way in which information
encoded digitally in DNA translates into a functional protein. The following activity allows you
to further your understanding of DNA, the genetic code and DNA transcription and translation.
Activity Objectives and Outcomes
Activity Objectives
 Use the genetic code to predict the amino acid structure of a protein
Activity Outcomes
Upon completion of this activity and the Activity: Protein Structure and Function, you will have
gained an understanding of the information flow within a biological system as an aid to
understanding BioMEMS applications. You will be able to use the genetic code to interpret a
sequence of DNA and predict the encoded polypeptide.
Activity: Transcribe and Translate a Gene
Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME)
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Gene Transcription Activity
Description
This activity allows you to apply your knowledge to transcribe and translate a gene using The
Genetic Code.
Procedure:
1. Review the tutorial “The Genetic Code”. Answer the 5 questions provided in the tutorial.
(http://wps.aw.com/bc_johnson_humanbio_5/100/25622/6559476.cw/index.html )
2. Answer the Post-Activity Questions.
Post-Activity Questions
The Genetic Code
1. What is the nucleotide sequence of the complementary strand of this DNA molecule:
AATGCGA?
2. What is the nucleotide sequence of the mRNA transcribed from this DNA molecule:
TACAAAAAG?
3. If the mRNA sequence you obtained in question 2 were to be translated, what would be the
sequence of amino acids?
4. Does every possible triplet in the genetic code specify an amino acid?
5. If a polypeptide contains 146 amino acids, what is the minimum number of nucleotides required
in the mRNA from which this polypeptide is translated?
6. What is a bioMEMS applications in which a strong understanding of the genetic code is
important?
Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME)
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Gene Transcription Activity
Summary
Deciphering the genetic code has allowed scientists to translate the sequence of DNA
into the sequence of amino acids that comprise the primary structure of a protein or
polypeptide. Protein structure is related to function, and proteins fulfill a wide diversity
of functions within cells. Proteins are also an integral part of many diagnostic aids and
devices.
References
1.
Fundamentals of BioMEMs and Medical Microdevices. Steven S. Saliterman. Wiley
Interscience. 2006.
2.
Life: The Science of Biology, 8th edition. Sadava et.al. Freeman. 2007.
3.
Bioinquiry, 3rd edition. Pruitt and Underwood. Wiley. 2006.
4.
Genetics: From Genes to Genomes, Hartwell et.al., McGraw Hill. 2008.
5.
Learn Genetics, Genetic Science Learning Center. University of Utah.
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu
6.
The Biotechnology Project. Madison Area Technology College. Proteins Unit 1:
Why Proteins?
Support for this work was provided by the National Science Foundation's Advanced
Technological Education (ATE) Program.
This Learning Module was developed in conjunction with Bio-Link, a National Science
Foundation Advanced Technological Education (ATE) Center for Biotechnology @
www.bio-link.org.
Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME)
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Gene Transcription Activity
Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME)
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Gene Transcription Activity
Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME)
Learning Modules available for download @ scme-nm.org
MEMS Introductory Topics
MEMS Fabrication
MEMS History
MEMS: Making Micro Machines DVD and LM
(Kit)
Units of Weights and Measures
A Comparison of Scale: Macro, Micro, and Nano
Introduction to Transducers
Introduction to Sensors
Introduction to Actuators
Problem Solving – A Systematic Approach
Wheatstone Bridge (Pressure Sensor Model Kit)
Crystallography for Microsystems (Crystallography
Kit)
Deposition Overview Microsystems
Photolithography Overview for Microsystems
Etch Overview for Microsystems (Rainbow Wafer
and Anisotropic Etch Kits)
MEMS Micromachining Overview
LIGA Micromachining Simulation Activities (LIGA
Simulation Kit)
Manufacturing Technology Training Center Pressure
Sensor Process (Three Activity Kits)
MEMS Innovators Activity (Activity Kit)
A Systematic Approach to Problem Solving
Introduction to Statistical Process Control
MEMS Applications
MEMS Applications Overview
Microcantilevers (Dynamic Cantilever Kit)
Micropumps Overview
BioMEMS
BioMEMS Overview
BioMEMS Applications Overview
DNA Overview
DNA to Protein Overview
Cells – The Building Blocks of Life
Biomolecular Applications for bioMEMS
BioMEMS Therapeutics Overview
BioMEMS Diagnostics Overview
Clinical Laboratory Techniques and MEMS
MEMS for Environmental and Bioterrorism
Applications
Regulations of bioMEMS
DNA Microarrays (GeneChip® Model Kit available)
Revision: January 2014
Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology: The World Beyond Micro
(Supports the film of the same name by Silicon
Run Productions)
Safety
Hazardous Materials
Material Safety Data Sheets
Interpreting Chemical Labels / NFPA
Chemical Lab Safety
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
Check our website regularly for the most recent
versions of our Learning Modules.
For more information about SCME
and its Learning Modules and kits,
visit our website
scme-nm.org or contact
Dr. Matthias Pleil at
[email protected]
www.scme-nm.org