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What is Learning? Any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs because of experience Experiences can be positive or negative Affect how we act in the future The Office: Dwight = Pavlov's Dog Introduction to Ivan Pavlov Behaviorism Accounts for behavior through observable acts and events No reference to “mind” or “will” Behaviorists focus on conditioning Associations between environmental stimuli & responses “S-R Psychology” 2 types of Conditioning: 1. Classical 2. Operant Little Albert Experiments w/John Watson Classical Conditioning Learning of Associations: learning that certain events occur together… Classical Conditioning Example: learn to associate two stimuli; a bell (conditioned), food (unconditioned) Dog hears bells and associates it with being fed. How Learning Occurs… Neutral Stimulus (one that does not produce a response) is regularly paired with a Unconditioned Stimulus Neutral Stimulus becomes Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Event/thing that elicits a response automatically/reflexively Unconditioned Response (UR): Response that is automatically produced Acquisition Person or animal associates a CS with an UCS Necessary learning has taken place to become conditioned Usually occurs gradually—over time Reinforced/strengthened with each pairing of CS and UCS Timing = conditioning works best if CS is presented immediately before UCS CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Classical Conditioning Video Summary Stimulus generalization occurs when a response spreads from one specific stimulus to other stimuli that resemble the original (responding to any bell sound, no matter what pitch) Discrimination Ability to respond differently to similar but distinct stimuli (i.e. circles & ovals) Procedure: Always pair UCS with CS Never pair UCS with second, similar stimulus Both stimuli are presented with different results Extinction & Spontaneous Recovery Extinction: Cause: CS is repeatedly presented without US Result: Conditioned Response disappears Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of conditioned response Usually requires more than one extinction session CLASSICAL CONDITIONING AND ADVERTISING Ways in which classical conditioning helps sell… • Pairing popular music together with products in ads to generate positive feelings • Consistently advertising a product on an exciting game show may result in the product itself generating excitement • Christmas music played in a story may trigger happy memories in a consumer’s mind persuading them to enter the store. Before we have heard of a product, it is Neutral. If we associate the product (N) with pleasant images (UCS), which produce pleasant feelings (UCR), the product (CS) will later create pleasant feelings (CR). Let’s say you have a beverage commercial that includes barely clothed models drinking the product. Conditioning is taking place. Neutral: beverage product UCS: barely clothed models UCR: pleasant feelings CS: the product CR: pleasant feelings Taste Aversions Definition: association of a negative experience with food Food becomes the CS that triggers memory of a negative experience Example: Chemotherapy Patients Often develop taste aversions to last thing they ate before treatment Treatment: given an odd tasting piece of candy immediately before receiving chemotherapy Prevents them from developing a dislike of foods that they enjoy Application Generate a list of 5 – 10 things that you have learned through classical conditioning in your life. Pick one and try to identify the UCS, UCR, CS, CR. Operant Conditioning Funny Way to Start the Day Operant Conditioning Definition: learning from consequences Individual “operates on” or causes some change in the environment Example: saying “Please”…When you say “Please” you are much more likely to get something. Results = determine future action (continue or discontinue) Rewards or Punishment Classical vs. Operant Classical Operant CS & UCS are presented to participant regardless of their behavior Study of how CS affects involuntary behavior (i.e. salivation, reaching for an altoid) Participant must engage in a behavior to determine the outcome Study of how voluntary behavior is affected by consequences Reinforcement B.F. Skinner “behavior is most influenced by a person’s history of rewards and punishments” Intro to B.F. Skinner: The Father of Operant Conditioning Skinner Box: Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning: Can Pigeons Read? Operant Conditioning in Dogs The Consequences of Behavior Neutral Consequence: something you can ignore Has no bearing on your likelihood of repeating or not repeating behavior Reinforcement is something that follows a response and strengthens the tendency to repeat that response Reinforcing (Shaping) Behavior on Television PRIMARY & SECONDARY REINFORCERS Primary reinforcement is something that is necessary for survival. Secondary reinforcement is a stimulus that we have learned to value (linked to a primary reinforcer) Primary and Secondary Reinforcers/Punishment Primary Natural Reinforcers Affection Comfort *satisfy biological needs Natural Punishers Pain Heat Cold *cause discomfort naturally Secondary “conditioned” Reinforcers Applause Awards Money “conditioned” Punishers Getting made fun of Bad grade “zero” Supsension/expulsion Positive & Negative Reinforcement Positive Ex: getting a raise after working hard at your job, getting an A after studying for a test Negative REMOVAL of something unpleasant to increase likelihood of desired behavior Makes a response more likely Many times we positively reinforce negative behaviors Reinforcement always strengthens a response, rather than weakening it. POSITIVE (ADDED) REINFORCEMENT (STRENGTHENS) PUNISHMENT (WEAKENS) NEGATIVE (SUBTRACTED) • Clean the house and earn $5 • a coach pats you on the back after a good play • a paycheck for working • $10 for getting an “A” on your report card • Senior privilege for maintaining good grades • When you earn good grades than no chores at home. •Have a good classroom discussion, than no homework. • You get your mouth washed out with soap when you curse • Touch and hot stove and get burned • Getting a ticket for speeding • You lose your driving privileges for breaking curfew • Time out, or the loss of freedom to combat bad behavior • You pay money for a speeding ticket Punishment involves decreasing the frequency of a behavior. Punishment always weakens a response, rather than strengthening it. Schedules of Reinforcement Reinforcement is more successful when it DOES NOT follow every desired behavior INTERVAL SCHEDULES deal with the amount of TIME that elapses RATIO SCHEDULES deal with BEHAVIORS or a certain # OF CORRECT RESPONSES Variable ratios schedule is when an unpredictable number of responses are required before reinforcement can be obtained. Ex. slot machines. Fixed ratio schedule a specific number of correct responses is required before reinforcement can be obtained. Ex. Buy 10 haircuts get 1 free. Variable interval schedule is when the reinforcement occurs after varying amounts of time. Ex. Fishing and catching a fish after varying amounts of time Fixed interval schedule is when the reinforcement is received after a fixed amount of time has passed. Ex. You get allowance every other Friday. Temper Tantrum Temper Tantrum and Operant Conditioning SOCIAL LEARNING Observe/imitate others’ behavior Not based on stimuli or reinforcement Ex: How do you learn how to act at a pep assembly? 2 Types of Social Learning: Cognitive Learning Modeling Learning is Purposeful Cognitive Learning How information is: Obtained Processed Organized Results from imitation or observation Focus on mental processes Examples: 1. Latent Learning: not immediately observable at time of learning Occurs without reinforcer Is evident when reinforcer is present 2. Cognitive Map: mental picture of a spatial relationship or relationship between events Bandura’s Four Processes Of Cognitive Learning • Attention: Observer must pay attention to model • Memory: Observer stores information about what the model did • Imitation: Observer uses remembered info to guide own actions • Motivation: Observer must have incentive to imitate model’s behavior TOKEN ECONOMY Desirable behavior is reinforced with valueless objects, which can be accumulated and exchanged for valued rewards INSIGHT • • • “AH-HA” Phenomenon Sudden & expected solution to a problem Wolfgang Kohler – Chimp & Banana experiment SOLVE THIS: A man walks into a bar and asks for a glass of water. The bartender points a gun at the man. The man says, “Thank you,” and walks out. What’s missing from the story that helps make it make sense? ANSWER: The man had hiccups Modeling The behavior of others increases the chance we will do the same thing. 3 types: http://www.rofl.to/experime nt-psychology-in-theelevator 1. Modeling (see above) Pep Assemblies at OHS Chanting at Basketball games 2. Observational Modeling = reproduce an observed behavior “The Sprinkler” “The Shopping Cart” 3. Disinhibition = observe someone engaging in risky behavior w/o consequences …individual may be more likely to engage Bungee jumping Social & Cultural Influences on Behavior Social Psychologists Cultural Psychologists Study Influence of: Social roles Attitudes Relationships Group influence Want to know how the factors above impact our behavior as individuals Study Influence of: Culture Ethnicity How do they impact behavior? Stanley Milgram Social Psychologist “We are all fragile creatures entwined in a cobweb of social constraints.” Constraints = NORMS Functions of Norms: How we are supposed to act Promise reward or punishment Predictable & orderly interactions Types of Norms: 1. Laws (Formal, Written) 2. Unspoken cultural understandings 3. Regulations that are learned unconsciously The Stanford Prison Study/Experiment Dr. Philip Zimbardo Results were very profound! Roles Assigned: Prisoners Study was ended after only 6 and Guards Question to be Answered: What would happen to them based on their assigned roles? Students agreed to live in the prison for two weeks days. Demonstrates the power of the social situation Can cause people to act “out of character” How the Stanford Prison Experiment was Conducted “Prison” was set up in basement of Stanford building Uniforms for prisoners and guards Guards got nightsticks Students agreed to live there for 2 weeks How the 2 Groups Were Impacted Effects on Prisoners: Panic, distress, helpless feeling Physical ailments Some became rebellious Others became apathetic (learned helplessness) Effects on Guards: Enjoy new power Some were nice Some were “tough but fair” 1/3 became harsh and abusive (even w/o prisoner resistance) Why People Obey WHY are people obedient? Obvious consequences of disobedience Value and respect authority Hopes for individual gain Promotions Likeability Knowledge *Most of all: Convinced of the legitimacy of authority… Fraternity Hazing Example Allocation and Routinization ALLOCATING RESPONSIBILITY Used to justify behavior Not accountable, but authority figure is ROUTINIZATION Fixation on the task Focus on busy work and details Lose sight of what is REALLY going on Used to enlist citizens in genocide i.e. Nazis, Khmer Rouge Politeness and Entrapment Need to be Polite Don’t want to “rock the boat” Avoid doubting experts Fear of being disliked LACK WORDS TO JUSTIFY DISOBEDIENCE to authority – Compare to how we learn manners Protests often accompany obedience Entrapment Action is escalated to justify commitment Dating example Milgram Example Greek Military Police Demand of the role vs. demand of conscience The Bystander Effect (Conformity) The Bystander Effect Case Study Diffusion of Responsibility Each person feels less accountable (more people = more diffusion) Asch’s Line Experiment What do people do when a group contradicts an obvious fact? Alone = Always accurate Group = 20% stated the answer correctly all of the time Those who did not conform: “puzzled”, uncomfortable, like an outcast Slide 1 Slide 2 Slide 3 Slide 4