Download Section E: Variation and Selection

Section E: Variation and Selection
Chapter 16: Chromosomes, Genes
and DNA
cell
nucleus
(contains chromosomes)
DNA
DNA is short for deoxyribonucleic acid. It
gets its ‘deoxyribo’ name from the sugar in
the DNA molecule. This is deoxyribose – a
sugar containing five carbon atoms.
body
(made of cells)
chromosome
(contains DNA)
Chapter 16: Chromosomes, Genes and DNA
This chapter looks at the structure and organisation of genetic material, namely
chromosomes, genes and DNA.
Figure 16.1 Our genetic make-up.
Fig_1601_A
The chemical that is the basis of inheritance in nearly all organisms is
DNA. DNA is usually found in the nucleus of a cell, in the chromosomes (Figure
16.1). A small section of DNA that determines a particular feature is called a gene.
Genes determine features by instructing cells to produce particular proteins which
then lead to the development of the feature. So a gene can also be described as a
section of DNA that codes for a particular protein.
DNA can replicate (make an exact copy of) itself. When a cell divides by mitosis (see
Chapter 17), each new cell receives exactly the same type and amount of DNA. The
cells formed are genetically identical.
Figure 16.2 (a) Watson and Crick with their doublehelix model.
The structure of DNA
Who discovered it?
James Watson and Francis Crick, working at Cambridge University, discovered the
structure of the DNA molecule in 1953 (Figure 16.2a). Both were awarded the Nobel
prize in 1962 for their achievement. However, the story of the first discovery of the
structure of DNA goes back much further. Watson and Crick were only able to
propose the structure of DNA because of the work of others – Rosalind Franklin
(Figure 16.2b) had been researching the structure of a number of substances using a
technique called X-ray diffraction.
(b) Rosalind Franklin (1920–1958).
181
adenine is always
opposite thymine
P
Chapter 16: Chromosomes, Genes and DNA
A T
S
S
phosphate
groups
P
hold the
P
nucleotides
S C G S P
in each
P
S
S T A
P strand
cytosine is
together
always opposite
guanine
hydrogen bonds
hold the pairs of
bases together
P
S
G C
P
S
Watson and Crick were able to use her results, together with other material, to
propose the now-familiar double helix structure for DNA. Rosalind Franklin died of
cancer and so was unable to share in the award of the Nobel Prize (it cannot be
awarded posthumously).
A molecule of DNA is made from two strands of nucleotides, making it a
polynucleotide. Each nucleotide contains a nitrogenous base (adenine (A),
thymine (T), cytosine (C) or guanine (G)), a sugar molecule and a phosphate group
(Figure 16.3).
phosphate group
nitrogenous base (adenine,
thymine, cytosine or guanine)
sugar molecule
Figure 16.3 The structure of a single nucleotide.
Notice that, in the two strands (see Figure 16.4), nucleotides with adenine are
Fig_1603_A
always opposite nucleotides with thymine, and cytosine is always opposite guanine.
Adenine and thymine are complementary bases, as are cytosine and guanine.
Complementary bases always bind with each other and never with any other base.
This is known as the base-pairing rule.
Key
P phosphate
S deoxyribose sugar
A adenine
T thymine
G guanine
C cytosine
Figure 16.4 Part of a molecule of DNA
Fig_1604_A
Not only is the DNA code universal, but the
actual DNA in different organisms is very
similar. 98% of our DNA is the same as that
of a chimpanzee; 50% of it is the same as that
of a banana!
DNA is the only chemical that can replicate itself exactly. Because of this, it is able
to pass genetic information from one generation to the next as a ‘genetic code’.
The DNA code
Only one of the strands of a DNA molecule actually codes for the manufacture of
proteins in a cell. This strand is called the sense strand. The other strand is called the
anti-sense strand. The proteins manufactured can be intracellular enzymes
(enzymes that control processes within the cell), extracellular enzymes (enzymes that
are secreted from the cell to have their effect outside the cell), structural proteins (e.g.
used to make hair, haemoglobin, muscles, cell membranes) or hormones.
Proteins are made of chains of amino acids. A sequence of three nucleotides in the sense
strand of DNA codes for one amino acid. As the sugar and phosphate are the same in all
nucleotides, it is actually the bases that code for the amino acid. For example, the base
sequence TGT codes for the amino acid cysteine. Because three bases are needed to code
for one amino acid, the DNA code is a triplet code. The sequence of bases that codes
for all the amino acids in a protein is a gene (Figure 16.5).
one entire gene
DNA base sequences
amino acids coded for
A T C G A A T T C C G C C C C C C C T A T T C G C
arginine
isoleucine
proline
leucine phenylalanine
one entire protein
Figure 16.5 The triplet code.
182
The triplets of bases that code for individual amino acids are the same in all
Fig_1605_A
organisms. The base sequence TGT codes for the amino acid cysteine in humans,
bacteria, bananas, monkfish, or in any other organism you can think of – the DNA
code is a universal code.
When a cell is about to divide (see Mitosis, Chapter 17) it must first make an exact
copy of each DNA molecule in the nucleus. This process is called replication. As a
result, each cell formed receives exactly the same amount and type of DNA. Figure
16.6 summarises this process.
T A
T A
T A
T A
T A
A T
A T
A T
A T
A T
T
A
T A
T A
T A
T A
C
G
C
C
G
C G
C G
C
G C
G C
T
A T
A T
G
A
One consequence of the base-pairing rule is
that, in each molecule of DNA, the amounts
of adenine and thymine are equal, as are the
amounts of cytosine and guanine.
C
T
1 The polynucleotide
strands of DNA
separate.
G
A
G
C
T
G
A
2 Each strand acts as
a template for the formation
of a new strand of DNA.
3 DNA polymerase assembles
nucleotides into two new
strands according to the
base-pairing rule.
4 Two identical DNA molecules
are formed – each contains a
strand from the parent DNA
and a new complementary strand.
Figure 16.6 How DNA replicates itself.
Gene mutations – when DNA makes mistakes
Fig_1607_A
(a)
duplication here
A mutation is a change in the DNA of a cell. It can happen in individual genes or in
whole chromosomes. Sometimes, when DNA is replicating, mistakes are made and the
wrong nucleotide is used. The result is a gene mutation and it can alter the sequence
of the bases in a gene. In turn, this can lead to the gene coding for the wrong protein.
There are several ways in which gene mutations can occur (Figure 16.7).
In duplication, Figure 16.7 (a), the nucleotide is inserted twice instead of once.
Notice that the entire base sequence is altered – each triplet after the point where
the mutation occurs is changed. The whole gene is different and will now code for
an entirely different protein.
In deletion, Figure 16.7 (b), a nucleotide is missed out. Again, the entire base
sequence is altered. Each triplet after the mutation is changed and the whole gene
is different. Again, it will code for an entirely different protein.
In substitution, Figure 16.7 (c), a different nucleotide is used. The triplet of bases
in which the mutation occurs is changed and it may code for a different amino acid.
If it does, the structure of the protein molecule will be different. This may be
enough to produce a significant alteration in the functioning of a protein or a total
lack of function. However, the new triplet may not code for a different amino acid
as most amino acids have more than one code.
In inversions, Figure 16.7 (d), the sequence of the bases in a triplet is reversed.
The effects are similar to substitution. Only one triplet is affected and this may or
may not result in a different amino acid and altered protein stucture.
ATT TCC GTT ATC
Chapter 16: Chromosomes, Genes and DNA
DNA replication
ATT TTC CGT TAT C
extra T becomes first base of next triplet
(b)
ATT TCC
GTT ATC
deletion here
ATT CCG TTA TC
replaced by first base of next triplet
(c)
ATT TCC GTT ATC
original base
ATG TCC GTT ATC
substituted base
(d)
ATT TCC GTT ATC
inversion here
ATT CCT GTT ATC
Figure 16.7 Gene mutations (a) duplication, (b)
deletion, (c) substitution, (d) inversion.
Fig_1608_A
183
Mutations that occur in body cells, such as those in the heart, intestines or skin,
will only affect that particular cell. If they are very harmful, the cell will die and
the mutation will be lost. If they do not affect the functioning of the cell in a major
way, the cell may not die. If the cell then divides, a group of cells containing the
mutant gene is formed. When the organism dies, however, the mutation is lost with
it; it is not passed to the offspring. Only mutations in the sex cells or in the cells that
divide to form sex cells can be passed on to the next generation. This is how genetic
diseases begin.
Chapter 16: Chromosomes, Genes and DNA
Sometimes a gene mutation can be advantageous to an individual. For example, as
a result of random mutations, bacteria can become resistant to antibiotics.
Resistant bacteria obviously have an advantage over non-resistant types if an
antibiotic is being used. They will survive the antibiotic treatment and reproduce.
All their offspring will be resistant and so the proportion of resistant types in the
population of bacteria will increase as this happens in each generation. This is an
example of natural selection (see Chapter 19). Pests can become resistant to
pesticides in a similar way.
Gene mutations are random events that occur in all organisms. The rate at which they
occur can be increased by a number of agents called mutagens. Mutagens include:
• ionising radiation (such as ultraviolet light, X-rays and gamma rays)
including mustard gas and nitrous oxide, many of the chemicals in
• chemicals
cigarette smoke and the tar from cigarettes, and some of the chemicals formed
when food is charred in cooking.
The structure of chromosomes
Each chromosome contains one double-stranded DNA molecule. The DNA is folded
and coiled so that it can be packed into a small space. The DNA is coiled around
proteins called histones (Figure 16.8).
supercoiled DNA/histones
chromosome
DNA coiled around histones
histones
DNA
Figure 16.8 The structure of a chromosome.
Fig_1610_A
184
Because a chromosome contains a particular DNA molecule, it will also contain the
genes that make up that DNA molecule. Another chromosome will contain a
different DNA molecule, and so will contain different genes.
How many chromosomes?
Nearly all human cells contain 46 chromosomes. The photographs in Figure 16.9
show the 46 chromosomes from the body cells of a human male and female.
(b)
Red blood cells have no nucleus, therefore
no chromosomes. This gives them more
room for carrying oxygen.
Figure 16.9 Chromosomes of a human male (a) and female (b). A picture of all the chromosomes in a
cell is called a karyotype.
The chromosomes are not arranged like this in the cell. The original photograph
has been cut up and chromosomes of the same size and shape ‘paired up’. The cell
from the male has 22 pairs of chromosomes and two that do not form a pair – the
X and Y chromosomes. A body cell from a female has 23 matching pairs including
a pair of X chromosomes.
The X and the Y chromosomes are the sex
chromosomes. They determine whether a
person is male or female.
Chapter 16: Chromosomes, Genes and DNA
(a)
Pairs of matching chromosomes are called homologous pairs. They carry genes
for the same features in the same sequence (Figure 16.10). Cells with chromosomes
in pairs like this are diploid cells.
Not all human cells have 46 chromosomes. Red blood cells have no nucleus and so
have none. Sex cells have only 23 – just half the number of other cells. They are
formed by a cell division called meiosis (see Chapter 17). Each cell formed has one
chromosome from each homologous pair, and one of the sex chromosomes. Cells
with only half the normal diploid number of chromosomes, and therefore only half
the DNA content of other cells, are haploid cells.
When two sex cells fuse in fertilisation, the two nuclei join to form a
single diploid cell (a zygote). This cell has, once again, all its chromosomes in
homologous pairs and two copies of every gene. It has the normal
DNA content.
a homologous pair of chromosomes
gene A
gene B
Genes and alleles
Genes are sections of DNA that control the production of proteins in a cell. Each
protein contributes towards a particular body feature. Sometimes the feature is
visible, such as eye colour or skin pigmentation. Sometimes the feature is not
visible, such as the type of haemoglobin in red blood cells or the type of blood
group antigen on the red blood cells.
genes A, B,
and C each
control a
different
feature
gene C
Figure 16.10 Both chromosomes in a homologous
pair have the sameFig_1612_A
sequence of genes.
185
Some genes have more than one form. For example, the genes controlling several
facial features have alternate forms, which result in alternate forms of the feature
(Figure 16.11).
Form 1 of the gene
Form 2 of the gene
earlobe attachment
Chapter 16: Chromosomes, Genes and DNA
free earlobe
attached earlobe
upper eyelid fold
upper eyelid not folded
upper eyelid folded
angle of eyes to nose
eyes angled away from nose
eyes angled towards nose
length of eyelashes
a homologous pair of chromosomes
A
a
B
B
c
C
Figure 16.12 A and a, B and b, C and c are
different alleles of the sameFig_1614_A
gene. They control
the same feature but code for different expressions
of that feature.
long eyelashes
short eyelashes
Figure 16.11 The alternate forms of four facial features.
Fig_1613_A
The gene for earlobe attachment has the
forms ‘attached earlobe’ and ‘free
earlobe’. These different forms of the gene are called alleles. Homologous
chromosomes carry genes for the same features in the same sequence, but the
alleles of the genes may not be the same (Figure 16.12). The DNA in the two
chromosomes is not quite identical.
Each cell with two copies of a chromosome also has two copies of the genes on
those chromosomes. Suppose that, for the gene controlling earlobe attachment, a
person has one allele for attached earlobes and one for free earlobes. What
happens? Is one ear free and the other attached? Are they both partly attached?
Neither. In this case, both earlobes are free. The ‘free’ allele is dominant and
‘switches off ’ the ‘attached’ allele, which is recessive. See Chapter 18 for more
detail on how genes are inherited.
Chromosome mutations
When cells divide, they do not always divide properly. Bits of chromosomes can
sometimes break off one chromosome and become attached to another. Sometimes
one daughter cell ends up with both chromosomes of a homologous pair whilst the
other has none. These ‘mistakes’ are called chromosome mutations and usually
result in the death of the cells formed.
Sometimes sex cells do not form properly and they contain more (or fewer)
chromosomes than normal. One relatively common chromosome mutation results
in ova (female sex cells) containing two copies of chromosome 21. When an ovum
like this is fertilised by a normal sperm, the zygote will have three copies of
chromosome 21. This is called trisomy (three copies) of chromosome 21. Unlike
some other chromosome mutations, the effects of this mutation are usually nonfatal and the condition that results is Down’s syndrome (Figure 16.13).
186
Figure 16.13 This boy has Down’s syndrome. His teacher is helping him to develop his full potential.
Chapter 16: Chromosomes, Genes and DNA
Down’s syndrome children sometimes die in infancy, as heart and lung defects are
relatively common. Those that survive have a near normal life span. Individuals
with Down’s syndrome can now live much more normal lives than was thought
possible just 20 years ago. They require much care and attention during childhood,
and particularly in adolescence, but, given this care, they can achieve good social
and intellectual growth. Most importantly, they achieve personal self-sufficiency.
Trisomy of chromosome 21 is more common in women over 40 years of age. As a
result, they have more babies with Down’s syndrome than younger women.
187
End of Chapter Checklist
Chapter 16: Chromosomes, Genes and DNA
You should now be able to:
✓✓ recall that the nucleus of a cell contains chromosomes on which genes are located
✓✓ understand that a gene is a section of a molecule of DNA
✓✓ describe the structure of a DNA molecule
✓✓ understand, in outline, how DNA acts as a genetic code
✓✓ understand, in outline, how DNA is replicated
✓✓ recall that in human cells the diploid number of chromosomes is 46 and the haploid number is 23
✓✓ understand the meaning of alleles of a gene (see also Chapter 18)
✓✓ recall that mutation is a rare, random change in genetic material that can be inherited
✓✓ understand that many mutations are harmful but some are neutral and a few are beneficial (see
also Chapter 19)
✓✓ understand how resistance to antibiotics can increase in bacterial populations
✓✓ understand that the incidence of mutations can be increased by mutagens such as ionising
radiation and some chemicals.
Questions
More questions on DNA can be found at the end of Section E on
page 226.
1 The diagram represents part of a molecule of DNA.
A
T
G
C
188
A
i) a gene
ii) an allele?
b) Describe the structure of a chromosome.
c) How are the chromosomes in a woman’s skin cells:
i) similar to
ii) different from those in a man’s skin cells?
3 DNA is the only molecule capable of replicating itself.
Sometimes mutations occur during replication.
T
E
2 a) What is:
B
C
D
a) Name the parts labelled
A, B, C, D and E.
Fig_1616_A
b) What parts did James Watson, Frances Crick and Rosalind
Franklin play in discovering the structure of DNA?
c) Use the diagram to explain the base-pairing rule.
a) Describe how DNA replicates itself.
b) Explain how a single gene mutation can lead to the formation of a protein in which:
i)many of the amino acids are different from those
coded for by the non-mutated gene
ii)only one amino acid is different from those coded for
by the non-mutated gene.
4 The graph shows the numbers and relative frequency of
births of Down’s syndrome babies in women aged between
20 and 50.
number of Down’s syndrome babies born
Down’s syndrome births as a percentage of all births
0.02
200
0.01
100
0
20
30
40
mother’s age (years)
50
Fig_DQ_03_A
a) What is Down’s syndrome?
b) How do the numbers of Down’s syndrome births
change with the age of the mother?
c) Suggest why the trend shown by the frequency of
Down’s syndrome births is different from that shown
by the actual numbers.
Chapter 16: Chromosomes, Genes and DNA
300
Down’s syndrome births
as a percentage of all births
number of Down’s syndrome babies born per year
Key
189