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Reporting Category 2 MECHANISMS OF GENETICS Part 1 – DNA components, Protein Synthesis, Gene Expression, Meiosis & Mutations DNA Deoxyribonucleic Acid Contains genetic information Shape is a double helix (twisted ladder) Made up of nucleotides Sugar (Deoxyribose) Phosphate Nitrogen Base DNA There are 4 Nitrogen bases Adenine - A Guanine - G Cytosine - C Thymin - T Chargaff’s rule says (Apple Tree Chewing Gum) A and T always pair G and C always pair DNA COMPONENTS THAT MAKE UP THE GENETIC CODE ARE COMMON TO ALL ORGANISMS PROTEIN SYNTHESIS TRANSCRIPTION TRANSLATION TRANSCRIPTION Messenger RNA (mRNA) reads and copies the DNA in the nucleus DNA is too big to leave the nucleus mRNA then leaves the nucleus to take the information to the ribosome (in the cytoplasam) The DNA then winds back up Which process is next? TRANSCRIPTION •Uses complementary nucleotides just like replication •Except that A pairs with U instead of T TRANSLATION mRNA is taken to the ribosome to be translated into protein (amino acids) tRNA brings the right amino acid to the ribosome We translate using a sequence of three nucleotides Called a codon We use a codon chart for translation TRANSLATION HOW DNA CREATES A TRAIT Each codon code for a particular amino acid Use the codon chart to figure out the amino acid USING A CODON CHART MUTATIONS Any change in a nitrogen base Mutations can create new traits Not always BAD; some are beneficial think about mutations that lead to adaptations! Passed on through SEX CELLS (gametes) Caused by a variety of things such as CHROMOSOMAL MUTATIONS POINT MUTATIONS POINT MUTATIONS Remember that mutations can be silent (unnoticed) if the amino acid is NOT changed by the mutation! MUTATIONS GENE EXPRESSION Gene Expression is a regulated process Proteins control the traits Genotype and Phenotype DNA wound tight = gene off DNA open = gene on Meiosis Division of the sex cells (gametes) Makes 4 new haploid cells Haploid vs diploid Crossing over increases genetic diversity so cells are NOT identical Reporting Category 2 MECHANISMS OF GENETICS Part 2 – Genetic Crosses, DNA Technology PHENOTYPE Refers to what is visible – either the dominant or recessive trait How do you know the phenotype? LOOK!! GENOTYPE Refers to the combination of alleles Only 3 possibilities BB = Homozygous Dominant Bb = Heterozygous bb = Homozygous recessive Must look at inheritance pattern to find out. Punnett Squares Monohybrid (Bb x bb) – Crossing 1 trait Dihybrid (BbSs x BBSS) – Crossing 2 traits Parent, F1, F2 generations Ratio Prediction—BbSs x BbSs??? MONOHYBRID MONOHYBRID PUNNETT SQUARE •Homozygous Dominant •YY Y y Y Y Yy •¼ or 25% •Heterozygous •Yy Y •2/4 or 50% •Homozygous Recessive •yy •¼ or 25% y Yy yy DIHYBRID DIHYBRID Remember to FOIL each parent separate (Male)YyTt x (Female)yytt MALE: First = YT Outer = Yt Inner = yT Last = yt FEMALE: First = yt Outer = yt Inner = yt Last = yt DIHYBRID NON-MENDELIAN INHERITANCE Incomplete Dominance red and white flowers codominance Black and white chickens Sex Linkage Females are XX Males are XY Sex-linked traits are on X chromosome Trait is more common in MALES Examples are colorblindness and hemophilia (blood fails to clot) • Males give X chromosomes to their daughters and Y’s to their sons • Moms give X’s to both daughters and sons PEDIGREES • • • • • • Tracing traits through generations Males are squares Females are circles Horizontal line means married Vertical line means children Filled in circle means the individual HAS the condition Can you identify the genotypes of individuals 4, 7, 12? 4 = Ee (parent 2 had to give an e) 7 = Ee (child is ee, so they had to have one e) 12 = ee (affected with recessive condition) KARYOTYPES In humans, 22 pair of autosomes 1 pair of sex chromosomes XX = female XY = male Extra chromosomes a result of non-disjunction • • • • • • • • Chromosome pairs fail to separate in meiosis One example is DOWN SYNDROME (extra 21) Another example is KLINEFELTERS (XXY) 3 21’s = Down Syndrome XY = male GENETIC TECHNOLOGY TRANSGENIC organisms •Organisms that have 2 different kinds of DNA •Gene cloning •Uses bacteria to make human proteins like insulin DNA FINGERPRINTING •Use gel electrophoresis to compare DNA fragments •IF DNA matches, it’s from the same individual Evidence points to suspect 2