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F.6 Biology Project: Human Genome Project Ng Ching Yee, Tse Wing Yan, Lam Chun Kit, So Chun Chung, Wong Kin Sing Introduction: Before we starting to talk about the Human Genome Project, we would like to talk about the word “Genome”. Genome is in fact all the DNA in an organism. DNA is very important to all the organisms in the world, it includes the genes. Genes carry inheritance information determine the making of all the proteins required by the organism, and hence determine the metabolism of the organism. DNA is make up of a sequence of nitrogenous bases: adenine, guanine, thymine and cytosine. These bases repeat to form a genome. In the human, there are 3 billion pairs of bases. All the organisms have specific genome will different amount of genes, different sequence of bases in the gene. Organisms with similar DNA are related in different way, the human genome project is the study on the genome of the human. The project can bring can bring us to a new era of human knowledge. Moreover, we can compare each other within the diversity of the organisms. Begins of the human genome project In 1985, Office of Health and Environmental Research (OHER), U.S. Department of Energy, Charles DeLisi and David A. Smith commission the first Santa Fe conference to assess the feasibility of a Human Genome Initiative. The following year, Department of Energy announces the Human Genome Initiative and the pilot project began. In 1990, the Human Genome Project Began formally, the project is coordinated by the U.S. Department of Energy and the National Institutes of Health. At the time, the project was expect to last for 15 years, but with advance technology, the completion date was accelerated to 2003. The goals of the human genome project: identify all the approximate 30,000 genes in human DNA, determine the sequences of the 3 billion chemical base pairs that make up human DNA, store this information in databases, improve tools for data analysis, transfer related technologies to the private sector, and address the ethical, legal, and social issues (ELSI) that may arise from the project. 1 F.6 Biology Project: Human Genome Project Ng Ching Yee, Tse Wing Yan, Lam Chun Kit, So Chun Chung, Wong Kin Sing The process of the human genome project: The sequence of the human genes is determined, but it is actually the reference sequence. It does not represent an exact match for any person’s genome, since genome in human is specific to each person. In the human genome project, the researchers blood samples in female and sperm samples in male from a large number of donors. Not all the samples will be examined; only a few samples would be studied. Because of the privacy, the name of the sources will be protected and nobodies knew the source of the genome being examined. The main goal of the project is genome sequence. The complete human genome sequence is expected to be finished by the end of 2003. In the sequencing of the human genome, the chromosomes of the human are first broken into much shorter pieces, shorter pieces are then used as templates to make sets of fragments. The fragments are separated by gel electrophoresis with fluorescent dyes. The base at the end of the fragment is identified. computers are used to The original sequence of the bases in the pieces is generated. Then computer will collect the short sequence of base in the pieces, and arrange it into continuous stretches. But after the sequence of base is stretched, the sequencing has to be completed with high resolution with little error, and annotations and analysis have to be made. Moreover the sequence have to be totally and freely accessible, therefore the data from the sequencing has to be submitted to the public database, such as GenBank. Form the current draft Human Genome Sequence, we can have some knowledge on the human genome. There are 3.1647 billion bases in the human genome, there are averagely 3000 bases in a gene, but the size of the genes varies greatly. The largest gene in human is known as “dystrophin” with 2.4 million bases. In the past, the total number of genes is estimated to be 80,000 to 140,000, but with the draft, the estimate is revised to be about 30,000 to 35,000. However, the function of 50% of the discovered genes is not found. Even with the sequence of the human genome, the researchers still have to analyze the sequence, it can be done by comparing with the similar organisms. In the project, researchers also study the genetic makeup of fly, worm. From the draft, we can know that the human genome has a much greater portion (50%) of repeat sequences than the mustard weed (11%), the worm (7%), and the fly (3%). Scientists are studying on the evolution of human comparing with other organisms in respect of life span, size, interbreeding and genetic drift. 2 F.6 Biology Project: Human Genome Project Ng Ching Yee, Tse Wing Yan, Lam Chun Kit, So Chun Chung, Wong Kin Sing The researchers can find the genes associated with some of the diseases. Over 30 genes have been pinpointed and associated with breast cancer, muscle disease, deafness, and blindness. Further investigations will be made in the medical respect. The other goal of the project is to improve the tools for analysis for the research of the genetics, transferring part of the project to the private sectors can lighten the burden of the federal government, it can also allows a larger source of expert to participate in the project. Moreover, the application of the project is related to multibillion-dollar U.S. biotechnology industry, transferring the project to the private sectors can diverse the aspect of research. Benefits of the Human Genome Project: The human genome project reveals the DNA variation, knowing the effect of this. It leads to a better understanding on the human biology which can lead to solve many disease, the study of the organism’s DNA sequence can lead to the utilize of them in the aspect of energy source, agriculture and environment cleanup. Applications of the Project: Impact on the medical research: the specific DNA sequence is associated with the certain kind of common diseases such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, arthritis, and cancers, study on the DNA may lead to a new effective therapies. It improve the diagnosis and the treatment of those disease. Moreover, with better knowledge to these diseases, we can detect the diseases earlier and therefore the patient can be treated earlier, it leads to a higher chance to recover. Knowing the cause of the diseases is the disorder of the genes, the doctors or scientists can “repair” the gene and design an effective system of drug against the diseases. Moreover, with the human genome sequence, scientist can study how genes and protein work together in an organism. Impact on the bacteria genomic: the DNA sequence of many bacteria is also determined in the project. We can know much more about the bacteria, we can know the nature of the bacteria better. In fact the bacteria can affect human’s society greatly, and we can make use of the bacteria in many ways. Department of Energy initiated the Microbial Genome Program to sequence the genomes of bacteria useful in energy production, environmental remediation, toxic waste reduction, and industrial processing. First of all, we may study on the bacteria or pathogen cause diseases, and new medicines can be design against them or to kill them. We may also use the 3 F.6 Biology Project: Human Genome Project Ng Ching Yee, Tse Wing Yan, Lam Chun Kit, So Chun Chung, Wong Kin Sing bacteria to produce a new source of energy, which is known as biofuels, like photosynthesis, the bacteria may also produce renewable resource even in the extreme environment. With the biochemistry knowledge of the bacteria, many industries can make use of the bacteria for biotechnology. Biomanufacturing will use nontoxic chemicals and enzymes to reduce the cost and improve the efficiency of industrial processes. Moreover, bacteria can be used to protect the environment by detecting the pollutant, decomposing the waste chemicals. For example, biodegradable products can be produced to replace the toxic chemical product with the better knowledge of bacteria nature. Impact on the risk assessment: with better know to the human genome, scientists can assess the impact of radiation exposure, including low-dose exposures to the human or exposure to mutagenic chemicals and cancer-causing toxins. Those substances can affect the genes of human, but we a better knowledge of our genes, scientist may reduce the impact of them to us, or prevent them from affecting us. Impact on identification: it is fingerprinting technology, the DNA sequence of each person is specific, people can make use of this property to identify the potential suspects whose DNA may match the evidence left at crime scenes. Moreover, we can make use of DNA fingerprinting to identify the catastrophe victim, who may not be identified easily by appearances. It can be used to identify the endanger species which have their own genes, it is also an application to classification; new species may be identified easily. Determining and identifying which kind of bacteria or microorganism being a pollutant and reduces the pollution with the knowledge to the nature of those organism. With the genes, we may determine whether the organ donors match with the recipient in a transplant program. Impact on the agricultures: with a better knowledge to the plants and animals genome, scientist can create stronger plants or animals by changing their genes maybe through artificial breeding. The plant maybe disease-, insect-, and drought-resistant, the yield of the crops can be increased too. For animals, the livestock can be healthier, more productive, and disease-resistant. Moreover, the nutritious content can be increased in the similar way. Farmers can therefore increase the yield but reducing the cost, since the crops and the livestock are healthier and need no pesticides. The farmer can save the cost and the environment can the conserved. Problems associated with the project The privacy and the morality are the main counterargument of the project. 4 F.6 Biology Project: Human Genome Project Ng Ching Yee, Tse Wing Yan, Lam Chun Kit, So Chun Chung, Wong Kin Sing We will discuss on the important topics on the project: on the important applications, and the problem that the project facing. Medical Benefits from Human Genome Project How the human genome project (HGP) related to modern medicine? Will there become no diseases anymore in the world after the human genome project finish? In this section, you would see the fact and some of our opinions. Before it is complete, the human genome project promises to transform both biology and medicine. Our genes determine a lot of thing about us. For examples: genes determine what we look like, determine our characters, our ability. In addition, genes also influence what diseases we may eventually get. Therefore, understanding the complete set of genes, known as the human genome, will reveal the mysteries of how a human develops. It also promises to usher in an era of molecular medicine, with precise new approaches to the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease. If the DNA has some errors, the cell may make the wrong protein, and it often result in disease. In some cases, such as sickle cell anemia, just a single misplaced letter is sufficient to cause the disease. In fact, errors in our genes are estimated to be responsible for 3000 to 4000 hereditary diseases, including Huntington's disease, cystic fibrosis, neurofibromatosis, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, and many others. Moreover, altered genes are now known to be related to the causes of cancer, heart disease, diabetes, and many other common diseases. However, it should be noted that the diseases are not totally caused by genetic factors, the environmental factor, eg: diet, lifestyle also related to the causes of those diseases. Up to now, there is no new medicine directly related to the Human Genome Project developed. In the future, it is sure that medicine will have a big change after the Human Genome Project finish. The Human Genome Project will develop certain tools for identifying the genes that cause genetic diseases and common diseases. With the help of these tools, we can improve the treatment, the prediction and the prevention of such diseases. Much more specific and highly targeted drug can be made and act on the cause of the diseases with less side effect. We may also replace or fix the altered genes that cause diseases through gene therapy. Checking human genes may also be very useful in preventing diseases, because it enable us to know that if there is an altered gene and whether we will get a disease by checking our genes. If there does have an altered gene, we can have such gene therapy to prevent the disease to harm us. In fact, gene therapy is not easy to achieve. It is because finding the disease gene from all the human genes is very difficult. It just likes finding a needle in a deep ocean. The human genome will fill 1000 one thousand pages phone book if it is printed out, but 5 F.6 Biology Project: Human Genome Project Ng Ching Yee, Tse Wing Yan, Lam Chun Kit, So Chun Chung, Wong Kin Sing where the disease gene is? Who know? So, scientists have to spend a long time to chase the disease gene of a corresponding disease. It is not surprised that a few years is taken to find out where the disease gene locate in the human genome. Nowadays, the Human Genome Project has been successful to reveal some of the genetic diseases, eg: cystic fibrosis and colon cancer. The first gene therapy was proceed in federally approved clinical for trials. Below, we discuss about a common hereditary disease – hereditary colon cancer. In the Western countries, many people suffer from colon cancer. In fact, cancer is caused by interplay of genetic factor and environment factor. This is also true for the colon cancer. In addition, it is known that the colon cancer may be caused by an alter gene which is inherited from parents. Although scientists have known that the hereditary colon cancer is caused by an altered gene for many years, find out the altered gene is not a easy thing. They know the altered gene is located in 23 chromosomes, but they have no idea where it actually is? As we mentioned before, the 23 chromosomes in human contain millions of genes. Luckily, with the help of modern tools, scientists finally find out where the altered gene is. They found that it is located in the chromosome 2. They also found that a gene in the chromosome 3 also related to the colon cancer. These discoveries have clearly shown that how the Human Genome Project related and how it benefit in medicine. People who suspect to have hereditary colon cancer can do a simple blood test to determined whether he or she has such altered gene. For the people who have such altered gene, it means they may get the colon cancer. So they can do some prevention, eg: have a high fiber, low fat meal, regular body check…etc. For the people who are suffering the colon cancer, they may have a new treatment – replace the altered gene with a normal gene. With the help of the Human Genome Project, even the cancer can be cured. However, I think the successful of the Human Genome Project does not mean there will be no disease anymore. It is because the target of the Human Genome Project is not to destroy all the bacteria and virus. Its target is to reveal the secret of human genome in order to have a better treatment and prevention. People will still get ill as we are now normally do. One thing sure is that the death rate due to diseases will drop significantly and people will have a longer life. 6 F.6 Biology Project: Human Genome Project Ng Ching Yee, Tse Wing Yan, Lam Chun Kit, So Chun Chung, Wong Kin Sing Commercial Implications of Human Genome Project Patents of Human Genome Project: The patentability of inventions under U.S. law is determined by the Patent and Trademark Office ( USPTO ) in the Department of Commerce. A patent application is judged on four criteria. Useful: The inventor must identify some useful purpose for it. Novel: The invention is not known before the filing. Nonobvious: The invention is not an improvement easily made by someone trained in the relevant area. Enablement: The invention also must be described in sufficient detail to enable one skilled in the field to use if for the stated purpose. Importance of patents Patents are very important for the researchers as researchers are rewarded for their discoveries so that the can use monies gained from patenting to further their research. The investment of resources is encouraged by providing a monopoly to the inventor and prohibiting competitor from making, using, or selling the invention without a license. Wasteful duplication of effort is also prevented. Research if forced into new, unexplored areas. Moreover, secrecy is reduced and all researchers are ensured access top the new invention. Patents about single nucleotide ( SNPs ) are very important. SNPs are DNA sequence variations that occur when a single nucleotide ( A,T, G or C ) in the genome sequence is altered. Variations in DNA sequence can have a major impact on how human respond to disease; environmental insults such as bacteria, viruses, toxins and chemicals; and drugs and other therapies. As a result, there is a great value of SNPs to develop pharmaceutical products or medical diagnostics. So, pharmaceutical can make a great profit on new drugs and medicines. In 1999 April, ten large pharmaceutical companies and the UK Wellcome Trust philanthropy announced the establishment of a non-profit foundation to find and map 300000 common SNPs. The aim of those companies is not to make a profit but to prevent others from patenting the same information. Commercial opportunities of Human Genome Project It is predicted that life sciences may become the largest sector in the US economy as there is limitless applications cross boundaries from medicine and food to energy and environmental resources of HGP. Many of the companies, such as IBM, Compaq, DuPont and major pharmaceutical companies are among those interested in the 7 F.6 Biology Project: Human Genome Project Ng Ching Yee, Tse Wing Yan, Lam Chun Kit, So Chun Chung, Wong Kin Sing potential for targeting and applying genome data. Due to the commercial opportunities of HGP, the private sector participation is quite large. The area of economy included the following : Clinical medicine : many more individualized diagnostics and prognostics, drugs and other therapies. Agriculture and livestock : hardier, more nutritious and healthier crops and animals. Industrial processes : cleaner and more efficient manufacturing in such sectors as chemicals, pulp and paper, textiles, food, fuels, metals and minerals. Environmental biotechnology : biodegradable products, new energy resources, environmental diagnostics and less hazardous cleanup of mixed toxic-waste sites. DNA fingerprinting : identification of human and other animals, plants and microbes; evolutionary and human anthropological studies; and detection of and resistance to harmful agent that might be used in biological warfare. Many companies furnish valuable commercial services that the government could not provide, such as Celera Genomics, Incyte and Human Genome Science. The contribution of NIH and the Wellcome Trust on the United Kingdom are equally important. The taxes returned by private companies’ successes easily repay fundamental public investments. Great contribution of Genetically Modified ( GM ) foods Genetically Modified ( GM ) is the technologies of altering the genetic makeup of living things, such as animals, plants and bacteria. Recombinant DNA technology is the technology that combining genes from different organisms. The main use of this technology is on food and the purpose is to conferring is insect resistance or desired nutrients to the food. By the use of this technology, GM crops are grown commercially over 40 countries and on 6 continents. The crops include insecticide-resistance soybeans, corn, cotton, and canola. There is also grow of sweet potato resistance to virus. This largely increase the growth of crop. The growth of rice with increased iron and vitamins may alleviate chronic malnutrition on Asian countries. Apart from insect resistance and nutrients, the maturation time of crops can also be reduced. Moreover, GM food also provide medical use. For example, on the horizon are bananas that produce human vaccines against infectious diseases such a hepatitis B. As the growing populations of crops greatly increase, the income of agricultural countries also increase. However, there are also controversies of GM food. The problem that most people concern about is safety. Some people may have unknown allergens to GM food. This can be very dangerous and can also be fatal. As a result, there should be label of food which is GM food to provide choice to customers. However, there is no mandatory is 8 F.6 Biology Project: Human Genome Project Ng Ching Yee, Tse Wing Yan, Lam Chun Kit, So Chun Chung, Wong Kin Sing some countries ( e.g., United States ). Apart from these, there is also international problem. The production of world food will be dominated by a few companies because of the limited technology. It also may increase dependence of industralized nations by developing countries. Career of Human Genome Project Because of the develop of HGP, the biotechnology industry has more than tripled in size between 1992 and 2001. The revenue also increase from $ 8 billion to $ 27.6 billion. In 2001, there were 191000 US employees and more opportunities are expected in healthcare, food production, and environmental cleanup. In the following is different kind of careers greatly contribute to the economy. The two main area is medicine and agriculture. Medicine : this include medical genetics, genetic counseling, genetic nursing, gene testing, gene therapy, organ transplantation, fertility reproduction and public health. It also include pharmacogenomics, chemical, vaccine, medicine development and production. Agriculture and wildlife : this include generic modification of foods and seeds, biopesticide and neutriceutical development, wildlife management including identification, protection of endangered species and authentication of consumables such as wine , caviar. Reference : http://www.ornl.gov/TechResources/Human_genome/ 9 F.6 Biology Project: Human Genome Project Ng Ching Yee, Tse Wing Yan, Lam Chun Kit, So Chun Chung, Wong Kin Sing Human Genome Project and society The human genome project not only can help in identifying the criminals, but also the development of Human behavioral genetics. However, these two improvements will be lead to many social consequences such as discrimination and the law's view of the bounds of individual conduct. CRIMINAL Genes are controlling the characteristic of people. Only one-tenth of a single percent of DNA (about 3 million bases) differs from one person to the next. Scientists can use these variable regions to generate a DNA profile of an individual, using samples from blood, bone, hair, and other body tissues and products. In criminal cases, this generally involves obtaining samples from crime-scene evidence and a suspect, extracting the DNA, and analyzing it for the presence of a set of specific DNA regions (markers). Scientists find the markers in a DNA sample by designing small pieces of DNA (probes) that will each seek out and bind to a complementary DNA sequence in the sample. A series of probes bound to a DNA sample creates a distinctive pattern for an individual. Forensic scientists compare these DNA profiles to determine whether the suspect's sample matches the evidence sample. A marker by itself usually is not unique to an individual; if, however, two DNA samples are alike at four or five regions, odds are great that the samples are from the same person. If the sample profiles don't match, the person did not contribute the DNA at the crime scene. However, the process of this is very time consuming. The database of the human genome project has stored the different kind in formation of genes. The police can find out the characteristic of the criminals according to the database. This database shortens the time to investigate. We can find out the criminals even they just left a hair in the scene. HUMAN BEHAVIORAL GENETICS Human behavioral genetics, a relatively new field, seeks to understand both the genetic and environmental contributions to individual variations in human behavior. Human genome project put a big afford on this. By collecting and analyzing the DNA of the criminals, we can find the common factors among them. Before these people do something bad, we can prevent it happen. However, it often is difficult to define the behavior in question. Behaviors, like all complex traits, involve multiple genes, a reality that complicates the search for genetic contributions. Although the database of the human genome project has stored the information, it is not ready for prediction. If the population or the environment changes, the heritability most likely will change as well. Most important, heritability statements provide no basis for predictions about the expression of the trait in question in any given individual. Behaviors change in 10 F.6 Biology Project: Human Genome Project Ng Ching Yee, Tse Wing Yan, Lam Chun Kit, So Chun Chung, Wong Kin Sing response to alterations in biological structures or processes. For example, a brain injury can turn a polite, mild-mannered person into a foul-mouthed, aggressive boor, and we routinely modify the behavioral manifestations of mental illnesses with drugs that alter brain chemistry. Hence, the personality is created by interaction of both genes and environment. DISCRIMINATION Finally, although the project contributes to the society, discrimination will become a serious problem. Predisposition of violence or antisocial, thrill-seeking behavior and the health of a person will bring a lot of inconvenience. If the people predispose to have a cancer, the insurance company will use a legally justified reason to reject them from mortgage insurance. Although the genes control the human body, it is just a potential. The people may not suffer from illness if they keep them body healthy. It implies that the environment can cause individual variations in human. Predictive diagnostic information derived from genetic tests should not be suppressed in the absence of measures. Genetic causation is over determined in both concept and evidence. LAW A growing scientific and popular focus on genes and behavior has contributed to a resurgence of behavioral genetic determinism—the belief that genetics is the major factor in determining behavior. This could lead to grievous social consequences. The criminal law also recognizes a version of the reasonable person standard. Criminal negligence is defined by reference to a reasonable person. The main rationales for the reasonable person standard are the required conduct of the individual and the outcomes of cases are more predictable, having a unitary, objective standard allows individuals to have reasonable expectations of the behavior of others, it is easy for juries to apply, it can adapt and change over time, it does not need detailed codification. It is not clear whether or how behavioral genetic discoveries and claims will affect the law's fundamental assumptions about individuals as responsible agents. If the unitary standard were replaced with a more subjective standard, it would cause a significant change in the law's view of the bounds of individual conduct. CLONE MAN As the human genome project finished, clone man will become the next investigation. People have many opinions on this tropic. The Raelians sponsored by chemist Brigitte Boisselier and her cloning company has created a clone. Clone men are the debacle on the human history. One like Art Caplan, Ph.D, who is a MSNBC contributor, say clone man devalues the life. It is against the natural law. It is linked to abortion and is a tool to raise the dead as well as to manufacture armies of clones. The new-bored clone body may face the health problem because the technology now is still not 11 F.6 Biology Project: Human Genome Project Ng Ching Yee, Tse Wing Yan, Lam Chun Kit, So Chun Chung, Wong Kin Sing enough to prevent. Or the parents may start choosing the kind of body they want. In addition, base on religious objection, God created human beings with different characteristic, it means that human is specific. According to the original Humanist Manifesto say, Religious humanists regard the universe as self-existing and not created and believes that man is a part of nature and that he has emerged as a result of a continuous process. Cloning cannot create men. Moreover, the people can live forever by downloading their memories into a cloned body. It may cause the population problem. Death cannot be prevented and this kind of technology violates the natural law. And should we regard the life of clone man the same as the human beings? What is the meaning of the life of clone? If they just used for medical use, it will be a tragedy. Besides, it is said to be a breakthrough in health care. Firstly, the one, who need an organ to save their lives, can survivals by this technology. The doctor can create an organ that has the same genetic makeup by cloning. Or if the patient have a serious health problem, clone man will be helpful. The patient will be survival by downloading the memories into the healthy clone man. Hence, they can have the new life. Secondly, the talent and skill can be restored. Clone man has the same genetic make up as the parent. It implies that the clone will have the same potential. These people can finish the tasks although the normal lifetime is not long enough. Life is short, the time is not enough for people, and this technology can solve this problem. Clone man just has the medical use, and contribute to the human beings. 12 F.6 Biology Project: Human Genome Project Ng Ching Yee, Tse Wing Yan, Lam Chun Kit, So Chun Chung, Wong Kin Sing Privacy problems of Human Genome Project The Human Genome Project (HGP) can bring us a lot of benefits, for example it has improvements on medicine, health care, biotechnology, energy sources and agriculture, etc. But, besides the benefits, people have arguments continuously about the HGP, and they mainly pay their attention on the ethical, legal and social issues (ELSI). Privacy problem is one of the most popular topics that people concern about. What do people worry about? The HGP decodes the sequence of the chemical bases in the human genes, which store the information that determine all of our characteristics. That means, in the future, one more thing will be used to identify us, it is the record of personal genetic information. As these records store all of our genetic information, people worry about that, the disclosure of these records will lead to the privacy problems, they worry about the fairness in the use of their genetic information by different purposes. Also they afraid some genetic differences that will not easily seen by our eyes, but will be determined by decoding our genes, and this will cause stigmatization due to the genetic differences. Examples of the privacy problems that people worry about For example, a person wants to find a job, and he has a hereditary disease. The employers may carry out genetic test and get the genetic information of this applicant. These information can not exactly show the working ability of the applicant, but the employers may discriminate against the applicant according to the genetic differences. Even though the hereditary disease does not affect his work, the applicant may still lose the opportunity of getting the job, just because the employers don’t like it. It is unfair to the applicant. The employers may also avoid hiring employees that are possible to take sick leaves or retire early for health reasons. It is because the employers afraid these employees may use healthcare benefits excessively, and the employers also need to spend more to recruit and train the new staffs. The disclosure of the personal genetic information is also a problem that individuals worry about. Use the above case as an example, the employers may send a copy of the genetic information of the applicant to insurers or medical information bureaus without his consent, and they will disturb the applicant. Except from the privacy problems of employment, the personal genetic information may also use by the insurers. The insurers may require the individuals to take genetic tests, and they will use these genetic information to deny, limit or cancel the insurance 13 F.6 Biology Project: Human Genome Project Ng Ching Yee, Tse Wing Yan, Lam Chun Kit, So Chun Chung, Wong Kin Sing policies, and the insurers can gain the largest benefits, at the same time, the individuals deal unfairly with these schemes. How can we solve these problems? The only way to solve the privacy problems is legislation. By enacting genetic information antidiscrimination laws, our genetic information and privacy can be protected. In USA, antidiscrimination laws already exist for several years. These laws are applied by some acts in the USA, such as the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) and the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA). These laws mainly prohibit the employers or the insurance providers carry out genetic tests to the individuals, and this prevent them to use the genetic information for discrimination of individuals, so that every people can have the same opportunities of getting a job, or joining the insurance policies. These laws also ensure the discoveries of the HGP are use to improve our life but not to discriminate against different people in the society. Sources of data: Human Genome Project Information http://www.ornl.gov/hgmis/ National Conference of State Legislatures Web site http://www.ncsl.org/programs/health/Genetics/charts.htm 14 F.6 Biology Project: Human Genome Project Ng Ching Yee, Tse Wing Yan, Lam Chun Kit, So Chun Chung, Wong Kin Sing Morality and religious problems associated with the Human Genome Project It is known that the genes in the human control the human in different ways, first of all, the genes carry the information determining the sequence of amino acid in protein, the protein is then build up to enzymes. Corresponding genes also determine other characteristic of the human. For example, sex, appearance, behaviors, etc. In the human genome project, scientists are trying their best to find out the function of genes, once they know, they may use them to “modify” babies, the abilities of the babies can be assigned to what they want. However, this lead to a ethical problem. Whether scientist should play the role of the God and “make” their wanted people as they want to see. In fact, in society, many people are afraid that the negative sides of the project may overcome the positive side. They are not sure about the results of the project and what benefits the project can bring to them. They may be afraid that the change of the human genome may bring disorder to the human society; many people are scared that the society will not accept the people who have not change their genes. The abilities of people will have a great different within the society, this results in a huge discrimination towards people who do not change themselves. The second question is should scientist reveal the DNA sequence of human? Human is the most intelligence organism; it has a superior position in the world. DNA determines how it is superior to other organism. From the religious view, the God make the people as the God desired, people’s secret should be kept, it is to respect the God, if the scientists change the characteristic of the human, it is change of natural, it is rude to the God, because only the God can make people. Although the Human Genome Project can bring a lot of benefit to human, but in fact it can also be abused. Like weapons, the technology can also bring disaster to human. If some bad people use the technology to make super people for bad purpose, who can prevent this, it sounds that it is only a scene in a movie, but it is possible. DNA can controls one’s intelligence, behavior and physiological ability. What about if the “super man” is really a devil, will he destroy our world, or if the creation of “super man” failed and a monster is created, who can bear the responsibility. In my opinion, the human genome project is very good to the world in many ways. However, I am also afraid that the creation of the “super man” will lead to a disorder to the world. Even the determination of the sex of the babies is against the natural. Reference: http://www.ornl.gov/TechResources/Human_Genome/ 15