Download Begins of the human genome project

F.6 Biology Project: Human Genome Project
Ng Ching Yee, Tse Wing Yan, Lam Chun Kit, So Chun Chung, Wong Kin Sing
Introduction:
Before we starting to talk about the Human Genome Project, we would like to talk
about the word “Genome”. Genome is in fact all the DNA in an organism. DNA is
very important to all the organisms in the world, it includes the genes. Genes carry
inheritance information determine the making of all the proteins required by the
organism, and hence determine the metabolism of the organism. DNA is make up of a
sequence of nitrogenous bases: adenine, guanine, thymine and cytosine. These bases
repeat to form a genome. In the human, there are 3 billion pairs of bases. All the
organisms have specific genome will different amount of genes, different sequence of
bases in the gene. Organisms with similar DNA are related in different way, the
human genome project is the study on the genome of the human. The project can
bring can bring us to a new era of human knowledge. Moreover, we can compare each
other within the diversity of the organisms.
Begins of the human genome project
In 1985, Office of Health and Environmental Research (OHER), U.S. Department of
Energy, Charles DeLisi and David A. Smith commission the first Santa Fe conference
to assess the feasibility of a Human Genome Initiative. The following year,
Department of Energy announces the Human Genome Initiative and the pilot project
began. In 1990, the Human Genome Project Began formally, the project is
coordinated by the U.S. Department of Energy and the National Institutes of Health.
At the time, the project was expect to last for 15 years, but with advance technology,
the completion date was accelerated to 2003.
The goals of the human genome project:
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identify all the approximate 30,000 genes in human DNA,
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determine the sequences of the 3 billion chemical base pairs that make up
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human DNA,
store this information in databases,
improve tools for data analysis,
transfer related technologies to the private sector, and
address the ethical, legal, and social issues (ELSI) that may arise from the
project.
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F.6 Biology Project: Human Genome Project
Ng Ching Yee, Tse Wing Yan, Lam Chun Kit, So Chun Chung, Wong Kin Sing
The process of the human genome project:
The sequence of the human genes is determined, but it is actually the reference
sequence. It does not represent an exact match for any person’s genome, since
genome in human is specific to each person. In the human genome project, the
researchers blood samples in female and sperm samples in male from a large number
of donors. Not all the samples will be examined; only a few samples would be studied.
Because of the privacy, the name of the sources will be protected and nobodies knew
the source of the genome being examined.
The main goal of the project is genome sequence. The complete human genome
sequence is expected to be finished by the end of 2003. In the sequencing of the
human genome, the chromosomes of the human are first broken into much shorter
pieces, shorter pieces are then used as templates to make sets of fragments. The
fragments are separated by gel electrophoresis with fluorescent dyes. The base at the
end of the fragment is identified. computers are used to The original sequence of the
bases in the pieces is generated. Then computer will collect the short sequence of base
in the pieces, and arrange it into continuous stretches.
But after the sequence of base is stretched, the sequencing has to be completed with
high resolution with little error, and annotations and analysis have to be made.
Moreover the sequence have to be totally and freely accessible, therefore the data
from the sequencing has to be submitted to the public database, such as GenBank.
Form the current draft Human Genome Sequence, we can have some knowledge on
the human genome. There are 3.1647 billion bases in the human genome, there are
averagely 3000 bases in a gene, but the size of the genes varies greatly. The largest
gene in human is known as “dystrophin” with 2.4 million bases. In the past, the total
number of genes is estimated to be 80,000 to 140,000, but with the draft, the estimate
is revised to be about 30,000 to 35,000. However, the function of 50% of the
discovered genes is not found.
Even with the sequence of the human genome, the researchers still have to analyze the
sequence, it can be done by comparing with the similar organisms. In the project,
researchers also study the genetic makeup of fly, worm. From the draft, we can know
that the human genome has a much greater portion (50%) of repeat sequences than the
mustard weed (11%), the worm (7%), and the fly (3%). Scientists are studying on the
evolution of human comparing with other organisms in respect of life span, size,
interbreeding and genetic drift.
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F.6 Biology Project: Human Genome Project
Ng Ching Yee, Tse Wing Yan, Lam Chun Kit, So Chun Chung, Wong Kin Sing
The researchers can find the genes associated with some of the diseases. Over 30
genes have been pinpointed and associated with breast cancer, muscle disease,
deafness, and blindness. Further investigations will be made in the medical respect.
The other goal of the project is to improve the tools for analysis for the research of the
genetics, transferring part of the project to the private sectors can lighten the burden
of the federal government, it can also allows a larger source of expert to participate in
the project. Moreover, the application of the project is related to multibillion-dollar
U.S. biotechnology industry, transferring the project to the private sectors can diverse
the aspect of research.
Benefits of the Human Genome Project:
The human genome project reveals the DNA variation, knowing the effect of this. It leads
to a better understanding on the human biology which can lead to solve many disease, the
study of the organism’s DNA sequence can lead to the utilize of them in the aspect of
energy source, agriculture and environment cleanup.
Applications of the Project:
Impact on the medical research: the specific DNA sequence is associated with the
certain kind of common diseases such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, arthritis,
and cancers, study on the DNA may lead to a new effective therapies. It improve the
diagnosis and the treatment of those disease. Moreover, with better knowledge to
these diseases, we can detect the diseases earlier and therefore the patient can be
treated earlier, it leads to a higher chance to recover. Knowing the cause of the
diseases is the disorder of the genes, the doctors or scientists can “repair” the gene and
design an effective system of drug against the diseases. Moreover, with the human
genome sequence, scientist can study how genes and protein work together in an
organism.
Impact on the bacteria genomic: the DNA sequence of many bacteria is also
determined in the project. We can know much more about the bacteria, we can know
the nature of the bacteria better. In fact the bacteria can affect human’s society greatly,
and we can make use of the bacteria in many ways. Department of Energy initiated
the Microbial Genome Program to sequence the genomes of bacteria useful in energy
production, environmental remediation, toxic waste reduction, and industrial
processing. First of all, we may study on the bacteria or pathogen cause diseases, and
new medicines can be design against them or to kill them. We may also use the
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F.6 Biology Project: Human Genome Project
Ng Ching Yee, Tse Wing Yan, Lam Chun Kit, So Chun Chung, Wong Kin Sing
bacteria to produce a new source of energy, which is known as biofuels, like
photosynthesis, the bacteria may also produce renewable resource even in the extreme
environment. With the biochemistry knowledge of the bacteria, many industries can
make use of the bacteria for biotechnology. Biomanufacturing will use nontoxic
chemicals and enzymes to reduce the cost and improve the efficiency of industrial
processes. Moreover, bacteria can be used to protect the environment by detecting the
pollutant, decomposing the waste chemicals. For example, biodegradable products
can be produced to replace the toxic chemical product with the better knowledge of
bacteria nature.
Impact on the risk assessment: with better know to the human genome, scientists can
assess the impact of radiation exposure, including low-dose exposures to the human
or exposure to mutagenic chemicals and cancer-causing toxins. Those substances can
affect the genes of human, but we a better knowledge of our genes, scientist may
reduce the impact of them to us, or prevent them from affecting us.
Impact on identification: it is fingerprinting technology, the DNA sequence of each
person is specific, people can make use of this property to identify the potential
suspects whose DNA may match the evidence left at crime scenes. Moreover, we can
make use of DNA fingerprinting to identify the catastrophe victim, who may not be
identified easily by appearances. It can be used to identify the endanger species which
have their own genes, it is also an application to classification; new species may be
identified easily. Determining and identifying which kind of bacteria or
microorganism being a pollutant and reduces the pollution with the knowledge to the
nature of those organism. With the genes, we may determine whether the organ
donors match with the recipient in a transplant program.
Impact on the agricultures: with a better knowledge to the plants and animals genome,
scientist can create stronger plants or animals by changing their genes maybe through
artificial breeding. The plant maybe disease-, insect-, and drought-resistant, the yield
of the crops can be increased too. For animals, the livestock can be healthier, more
productive, and disease-resistant. Moreover, the nutritious content can be increased in
the similar way. Farmers can therefore increase the yield but reducing the cost, since
the crops and the livestock are healthier and need no pesticides. The farmer can save
the cost and the environment can the conserved.
Problems associated with the project
The privacy and the morality are the main counterargument of the project.
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F.6 Biology Project: Human Genome Project
Ng Ching Yee, Tse Wing Yan, Lam Chun Kit, So Chun Chung, Wong Kin Sing
We will discuss on the important topics on the project: on the important applications,
and the problem that the project facing.
Medical Benefits from Human Genome Project
How the human genome project (HGP) related to modern medicine? Will there
become no diseases anymore in the world after the human genome project finish? In
this section, you would see the fact and some of our opinions.
Before it is complete, the human genome project promises to transform both biology
and medicine. Our genes determine a lot of thing about us. For examples: genes
determine what we look like, determine our characters, our ability. In addition, genes
also influence what diseases we may eventually get. Therefore, understanding the
complete set of genes, known as the human genome, will reveal the mysteries of how
a human develops. It also promises to usher in an era of molecular medicine, with
precise new approaches to the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease.
If the DNA has some errors, the cell may make the wrong protein, and it often result
in disease. In some cases, such as sickle cell anemia, just a single misplaced letter is
sufficient to cause the disease. In fact, errors in our genes are estimated to be
responsible for 3000 to 4000 hereditary diseases, including Huntington's disease,
cystic fibrosis, neurofibromatosis, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, and many others.
Moreover, altered genes are now known to be related to the causes of cancer, heart
disease, diabetes, and many other common diseases. However, it should be noted that
the diseases are not totally caused by genetic factors, the environmental factor, eg:
diet, lifestyle also related to the causes of those diseases.
Up to now, there is no new medicine directly related to the Human Genome Project
developed. In the future, it is sure that medicine will have a big change after the
Human Genome Project finish. The Human Genome Project will develop certain tools
for identifying the genes that cause genetic diseases and common diseases. With the
help of these tools, we can improve the treatment, the prediction and the prevention of
such diseases. Much more specific and highly targeted drug can be made and act on
the cause of the diseases with less side effect. We may also replace or fix the altered
genes that cause diseases through gene therapy. Checking human genes may also be
very useful in preventing diseases, because it enable us to know that if there is an
altered gene and whether we will get a disease by checking our genes. If there does
have an altered gene, we can have such gene therapy to prevent the disease to harm
us.
In fact, gene therapy is not easy to achieve. It is because finding the disease gene from
all the human genes is very difficult. It just likes finding a needle in a deep ocean. The
human genome will fill 1000 one thousand pages phone book if it is printed out, but
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F.6 Biology Project: Human Genome Project
Ng Ching Yee, Tse Wing Yan, Lam Chun Kit, So Chun Chung, Wong Kin Sing
where the disease gene is? Who know? So, scientists have to spend a long time to
chase the disease gene of a corresponding disease. It is not surprised that a few years
is taken to find out where the disease gene locate in the human genome.
Nowadays, the Human Genome Project has been successful to reveal some of the
genetic diseases, eg: cystic fibrosis and colon cancer. The first gene therapy was
proceed in federally approved clinical for trials.
Below, we discuss about a common hereditary disease – hereditary colon cancer. In
the Western countries, many people suffer from colon cancer. In fact, cancer is caused
by interplay of genetic factor and environment factor. This is also true for the colon
cancer. In addition, it is known that the colon cancer may be caused by an alter gene
which is inherited from parents. Although scientists have known that the hereditary
colon cancer is caused by an altered gene for many years, find out the altered gene is
not a easy thing. They know the altered gene is located in 23 chromosomes, but they
have no idea where it actually is? As we mentioned before, the 23 chromosomes in
human contain millions of genes. Luckily, with the help of modern tools, scientists
finally find out where the altered gene is. They found that it is located in the
chromosome 2. They also found that a gene in the chromosome 3 also related to the
colon cancer.
These discoveries have clearly shown that how the Human Genome Project related
and how it benefit in medicine. People who suspect to have hereditary colon cancer
can do a simple blood test to determined whether he or she has such altered gene. For
the people who have such altered gene, it means they may get the colon cancer. So
they can do some prevention, eg: have a high fiber, low fat meal, regular body
check…etc. For the people who are suffering the colon cancer, they may have a new
treatment – replace the altered gene with a normal gene.
With the help of the Human Genome Project, even the cancer can be cured. However,
I think the successful of the Human Genome Project does not mean there will be no
disease anymore. It is because the target of the Human Genome Project is not to
destroy all the bacteria and virus. Its target is to reveal the secret of human genome in
order to have a better treatment and prevention. People will still get ill as we are now
normally do. One thing sure is that the death rate due to diseases will drop
significantly and people will have a longer life.
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F.6 Biology Project: Human Genome Project
Ng Ching Yee, Tse Wing Yan, Lam Chun Kit, So Chun Chung, Wong Kin Sing
Commercial Implications of Human Genome Project
Patents of Human Genome Project: The patentability of inventions under U.S. law is
determined by the Patent and Trademark Office ( USPTO ) in the Department of
Commerce. A patent application is judged on four criteria.
Useful: The inventor must identify some useful purpose for it.
Novel: The invention is not known before the filing.
Nonobvious: The invention is not an improvement easily made by someone trained in
the relevant area.
Enablement: The invention also must be described in sufficient detail to enable one
skilled in the field to use if for the stated purpose.
Importance of patents
Patents are very important for the researchers as researchers are rewarded for their
discoveries so that the can use monies gained from patenting to further their research.
The investment of resources is encouraged by providing a monopoly to the inventor
and prohibiting competitor from making, using, or selling the invention without a
license. Wasteful duplication of effort is also prevented. Research if forced into new,
unexplored areas. Moreover, secrecy is reduced and all researchers are ensured access
top the new invention.
Patents about single nucleotide ( SNPs ) are very important. SNPs are DNA sequence
variations that occur when a single nucleotide ( A,T, G or C ) in the genome sequence
is altered. Variations in DNA sequence can have a major impact on how human
respond to disease; environmental insults such as bacteria, viruses, toxins and
chemicals; and drugs and other therapies. As a result, there is a great value of SNPs to
develop pharmaceutical products or medical diagnostics. So, pharmaceutical can
make a great profit on new drugs and medicines. In 1999 April, ten large
pharmaceutical companies and the UK Wellcome Trust philanthropy announced the
establishment of a non-profit foundation to find and map 300000 common SNPs. The
aim of those companies is not to make a profit but to prevent others from patenting
the same information.
Commercial opportunities of Human Genome Project
It is predicted that life sciences may become the largest sector in the US economy as
there is limitless applications cross boundaries from medicine and food to energy and
environmental resources of HGP. Many of the companies, such as IBM, Compaq,
DuPont and major pharmaceutical companies are among those interested in the
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F.6 Biology Project: Human Genome Project
Ng Ching Yee, Tse Wing Yan, Lam Chun Kit, So Chun Chung, Wong Kin Sing
potential for targeting and applying genome data. Due to the commercial
opportunities of HGP, the private sector participation is quite large. The area of
economy included the following : Clinical medicine : many more individualized
diagnostics and prognostics, drugs and other therapies. Agriculture and livestock :
hardier, more nutritious and healthier crops and animals. Industrial processes :
cleaner and more efficient manufacturing in such sectors as chemicals, pulp and paper,
textiles, food, fuels, metals and minerals. Environmental biotechnology :
biodegradable products, new energy resources, environmental diagnostics and less
hazardous cleanup of mixed toxic-waste sites. DNA fingerprinting : identification of
human and other animals, plants and microbes; evolutionary and human
anthropological studies; and detection of and resistance to harmful agent that might be
used in biological warfare.
Many companies furnish valuable commercial services that the government could not
provide, such as Celera Genomics, Incyte and Human Genome Science. The
contribution of NIH and the Wellcome Trust on the United Kingdom are equally
important. The taxes returned by private companies’ successes easily repay
fundamental public investments.
Great contribution of Genetically Modified ( GM ) foods
Genetically Modified ( GM ) is the technologies of altering the genetic makeup of
living things, such as animals, plants and bacteria. Recombinant DNA technology is
the technology that combining genes from different organisms. The main use of this
technology is on food and the purpose is to conferring is insect resistance or desired
nutrients to the food. By the use of this technology, GM crops are grown
commercially over 40 countries and on 6 continents. The crops include
insecticide-resistance soybeans, corn, cotton, and canola. There is also grow of sweet
potato resistance to virus. This largely increase the growth of crop. The growth of rice
with increased iron and vitamins may alleviate chronic malnutrition on Asian
countries. Apart from insect resistance and nutrients, the maturation time of crops can
also be reduced.
Moreover, GM food also provide medical use. For example, on the horizon are
bananas that produce human vaccines against infectious diseases such a hepatitis B.
As the growing populations of crops greatly increase, the income of agricultural
countries also increase.
However, there are also controversies of GM food. The problem that most people
concern about is safety. Some people may have unknown allergens to GM food. This
can be very dangerous and can also be fatal. As a result, there should be label of food
which is GM food to provide choice to customers. However, there is no mandatory is
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F.6 Biology Project: Human Genome Project
Ng Ching Yee, Tse Wing Yan, Lam Chun Kit, So Chun Chung, Wong Kin Sing
some countries ( e.g., United States ). Apart from these, there is also international
problem. The production of world food will be dominated by a few companies
because of the limited technology. It also may increase dependence of industralized
nations by developing countries.
Career of Human Genome Project
Because of the develop of HGP, the biotechnology industry has more than tripled in
size between 1992 and 2001. The revenue also increase from $ 8 billion to $ 27.6
billion. In 2001, there were 191000 US employees and more opportunities are
expected in healthcare, food production, and environmental cleanup. In the following
is different kind of careers greatly contribute to the economy. The two main area is
medicine and agriculture. Medicine : this include medical genetics, genetic
counseling, genetic nursing, gene testing, gene therapy, organ transplantation, fertility
reproduction and public health. It also include pharmacogenomics, chemical, vaccine,
medicine development and production. Agriculture and wildlife : this include
generic modification of foods and seeds, biopesticide and neutriceutical development,
wildlife management including identification, protection of endangered species and
authentication of consumables such as wine , caviar.
Reference : http://www.ornl.gov/TechResources/Human_genome/
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F.6 Biology Project: Human Genome Project
Ng Ching Yee, Tse Wing Yan, Lam Chun Kit, So Chun Chung, Wong Kin Sing
Human Genome Project and society
The human genome project not only can help in identifying the criminals, but also the
development of Human behavioral genetics. However, these two improvements will
be lead to many social consequences such as discrimination and the law's view of the
bounds of individual conduct.
CRIMINAL
Genes are controlling the characteristic of people. Only one-tenth of a single percent
of DNA (about 3 million bases) differs from one person to the next. Scientists can use
these variable regions to generate a DNA profile of an individual, using samples from
blood, bone, hair, and other body tissues and products. In criminal cases, this
generally involves obtaining samples from crime-scene evidence and a suspect,
extracting the DNA, and analyzing it for the presence of a set of specific DNA regions
(markers). Scientists find the markers in a DNA sample by designing small pieces of
DNA (probes) that will each seek out and bind to a complementary DNA sequence in
the sample. A series of probes bound to a DNA sample creates a distinctive pattern for
an individual. Forensic scientists compare these DNA profiles to determine whether
the suspect's sample matches the evidence sample. A marker by itself usually is not
unique to an individual; if, however, two DNA samples are alike at four or five
regions, odds are great that the samples are from the same person. If the sample
profiles don't match, the person did not contribute the DNA at the crime scene.
However, the process of this is very time consuming. The database of the human
genome project has stored the different kind in formation of genes. The police can
find out the characteristic of the criminals according to the database. This database
shortens the time to investigate. We can find out the criminals even they just left a hair
in the scene.
HUMAN BEHAVIORAL GENETICS
Human behavioral genetics, a relatively new field, seeks to understand both the
genetic and environmental contributions to individual variations in human behavior.
Human genome project put a big afford on this. By collecting and analyzing the DNA
of the criminals, we can find the common factors among them. Before these people do
something bad, we can prevent it happen. However, it often is difficult to define the
behavior in question. Behaviors, like all complex traits, involve multiple genes, a
reality that complicates the search for genetic contributions. Although the database of
the human genome project has stored the information, it is not ready for prediction. If
the population or the environment changes, the heritability most likely will change as
well. Most important, heritability statements provide no basis for predictions about
the expression of the trait in question in any given individual. Behaviors change in
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F.6 Biology Project: Human Genome Project
Ng Ching Yee, Tse Wing Yan, Lam Chun Kit, So Chun Chung, Wong Kin Sing
response to alterations in biological structures or processes. For example, a brain
injury can turn a polite, mild-mannered person into a foul-mouthed, aggressive boor,
and we routinely modify the behavioral manifestations of mental illnesses with drugs
that alter brain chemistry. Hence, the personality is created by interaction of both
genes and environment.
DISCRIMINATION
Finally, although the project contributes to the society, discrimination will become a
serious problem. Predisposition of violence or antisocial, thrill-seeking behavior and
the health of a person will bring a lot of inconvenience. If the people predispose to
have a cancer, the insurance company will use a legally justified reason to reject them
from mortgage insurance. Although the genes control the human body, it is just a
potential. The people may not suffer from illness if they keep them body healthy. It
implies that the environment can cause individual variations in human. Predictive
diagnostic information derived from genetic tests should not be suppressed in the
absence of measures. Genetic causation is over determined in both concept and
evidence.
LAW
A growing scientific and popular focus on genes and behavior has contributed to a
resurgence of behavioral genetic determinism—the belief that genetics is the major
factor in determining behavior. This could lead to grievous social consequences. The
criminal law also recognizes a version of the reasonable person standard. Criminal
negligence is defined by reference to a reasonable person. The main rationales for the
reasonable person standard are the required conduct of the individual and the
outcomes of cases are more predictable, having a unitary, objective standard allows
individuals to have reasonable expectations of the behavior of others, it is easy for
juries to apply, it can adapt and change over time, it does not need detailed
codification. It is not clear whether or how behavioral genetic discoveries and claims
will affect the law's fundamental assumptions about individuals as responsible agents.
If the unitary standard were replaced with a more subjective standard, it would cause
a significant change in the law's view of the bounds of individual conduct.
CLONE MAN
As the human genome project finished, clone man will become the next investigation.
People have many opinions on this tropic. The Raelians sponsored by chemist Brigitte
Boisselier and her cloning company has created a clone. Clone men are the debacle on
the human history. One like Art Caplan, Ph.D, who is a MSNBC contributor, say
clone man devalues the life. It is against the natural law. It is linked to abortion and is
a tool to raise the dead as well as to manufacture armies of clones. The new-bored
clone body may face the health problem because the technology now is still not
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F.6 Biology Project: Human Genome Project
Ng Ching Yee, Tse Wing Yan, Lam Chun Kit, So Chun Chung, Wong Kin Sing
enough to prevent. Or the parents may start choosing the kind of body they want. In
addition, base on religious objection, God created human beings with different
characteristic, it means that human is specific. According to the original Humanist
Manifesto say, Religious humanists regard the universe as self-existing and not
created and believes that man is a part of nature and that he has emerged as a result of
a continuous process. Cloning cannot create men. Moreover, the people can live
forever by downloading their memories into a cloned body. It may cause the
population problem. Death cannot be prevented and this kind of technology violates
the natural law. And should we regard the life of clone man the same as the human
beings? What is the meaning of the life of clone? If they just used for medical use, it
will be a tragedy.
Besides, it is said to be a breakthrough in health care. Firstly, the one, who need an
organ to save their lives, can survivals by this technology. The doctor can create an
organ that has the same genetic makeup by cloning. Or if the patient have a serious
health problem, clone man will be helpful. The patient will be survival by
downloading the memories into the healthy clone man. Hence, they can have the new
life. Secondly, the talent and skill can be restored. Clone man has the same genetic
make up as the parent. It implies that the clone will have the same potential. These
people can finish the tasks although the normal lifetime is not long enough. Life is
short, the time is not enough for people, and this technology can solve this problem.
Clone man just has the medical use, and contribute to the human beings.
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F.6 Biology Project: Human Genome Project
Ng Ching Yee, Tse Wing Yan, Lam Chun Kit, So Chun Chung, Wong Kin Sing
Privacy problems of Human Genome Project
The Human Genome Project (HGP) can bring us a lot of benefits, for example it has
improvements on medicine, health care, biotechnology, energy sources and
agriculture, etc. But, besides the benefits, people have arguments continuously about
the HGP, and they mainly pay their attention on the ethical, legal and social issues
(ELSI). Privacy problem is one of the most popular topics that people concern about.
What do people worry about?
The HGP decodes the sequence of the chemical bases in the human genes, which store
the information that determine all of our characteristics. That means, in the future, one
more thing will be used to identify us, it is the record of personal genetic information.
As these records store all of our genetic information, people worry about that, the
disclosure of these records will lead to the privacy problems, they worry about the
fairness in the use of their genetic information by different purposes. Also they afraid
some genetic differences that will not easily seen by our eyes, but will be determined
by decoding our genes, and this will cause stigmatization due to the genetic
differences.
Examples of the privacy problems that people worry about
For example, a person wants to find a job, and he has a hereditary disease. The
employers may carry out genetic test and get the genetic information of this applicant.
These information can not exactly show the working ability of the applicant, but the
employers may discriminate against the applicant according to the genetic differences.
Even though the hereditary disease does not affect his work, the applicant may still
lose the opportunity of getting the job, just because the employers don’t like it. It is
unfair to the applicant.
The employers may also avoid hiring employees that are possible to take sick leaves
or retire early for health reasons. It is because the employers afraid these employees
may use healthcare benefits excessively, and the employers also need to spend more
to recruit and train the new staffs.
The disclosure of the personal genetic information is also a problem that individuals
worry about. Use the above case as an example, the employers may send a copy of the
genetic information of the applicant to insurers or medical information bureaus
without his consent, and they will disturb the applicant.
Except from the privacy problems of employment, the personal genetic information
may also use by the insurers. The insurers may require the individuals to take genetic
tests, and they will use these genetic information to deny, limit or cancel the insurance
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F.6 Biology Project: Human Genome Project
Ng Ching Yee, Tse Wing Yan, Lam Chun Kit, So Chun Chung, Wong Kin Sing
policies, and the insurers can gain the largest benefits, at the same time, the
individuals deal unfairly with these schemes.
How can we solve these problems?
The only way to solve the privacy problems is legislation. By enacting genetic
information antidiscrimination laws, our genetic information and privacy can be
protected.
In USA, antidiscrimination laws already exist for several years. These laws are
applied by some acts in the USA, such as the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
and the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA). These laws
mainly prohibit the employers or the insurance providers carry out genetic tests to the
individuals, and this prevent them to use the genetic information for discrimination of
individuals, so that every people can have the same opportunities of getting a job, or
joining the insurance policies. These laws also ensure the discoveries of the HGP are
use to improve our life but not to discriminate against different people in the society.
Sources of data:
Human Genome Project Information
http://www.ornl.gov/hgmis/
National Conference of State Legislatures Web site
http://www.ncsl.org/programs/health/Genetics/charts.htm
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F.6 Biology Project: Human Genome Project
Ng Ching Yee, Tse Wing Yan, Lam Chun Kit, So Chun Chung, Wong Kin Sing
Morality and religious problems associated with the
Human Genome Project
It is known that the genes in the human control the human in different ways, first of
all, the genes carry the information determining the sequence of amino acid in protein,
the protein is then build up to enzymes. Corresponding genes also determine other
characteristic of the human. For example, sex, appearance, behaviors, etc. In the
human genome project, scientists are trying their best to find out the function of genes,
once they know, they may use them to “modify” babies, the abilities of the babies can
be assigned to what they want. However, this lead to a ethical problem. Whether
scientist should play the role of the God and “make” their wanted people as they want
to see.
In fact, in society, many people are afraid that the negative sides of the project may
overcome the positive side. They are not sure about the results of the project and what
benefits the project can bring to them. They may be afraid that the change of the
human genome may bring disorder to the human society; many people are scared that
the society will not accept the people who have not change their genes. The abilities
of people will have a great different within the society, this results in a huge
discrimination towards people who do not change themselves.
The second question is should scientist reveal the DNA sequence of human? Human
is the most intelligence organism; it has a superior position in the world. DNA
determines how it is superior to other organism. From the religious view, the God
make the people as the God desired, people’s secret should be kept, it is to respect the
God, if the scientists change the characteristic of the human, it is change of natural, it
is rude to the God, because only the God can make people.
Although the Human Genome Project can bring a lot of benefit to human, but in fact
it can also be abused. Like weapons, the technology can also bring disaster to human.
If some bad people use the technology to make super people for bad purpose, who can
prevent this, it sounds that it is only a scene in a movie, but it is possible. DNA can
controls one’s intelligence, behavior and physiological ability. What about if the
“super man” is really a devil, will he destroy our world, or if the creation of “super
man” failed and a monster is created, who can bear the responsibility.
In my opinion, the human genome project is very good to the world in many ways.
However, I am also afraid that the creation of the “super man” will lead to a disorder
to the world. Even the determination of the sex of the babies is against the natural.
Reference: http://www.ornl.gov/TechResources/Human_Genome/
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