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CHAPTER 2 THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT: INTERPRETING THE LIFESPAN Summary Outline I. II. III. The psychoanalytic approach - Freud A. Structures of the mind 1. The id 2. The ego 3. The superego B. Defending the unconscious mind: Defense mechanisms 1. Repression 2. Compensation 3. Rationalization 4. Introjection 5. Regression 6. Displacement C. The developing personality 1. The oral stage 2. The anal stage 3. The phallic stage 4. The latency stage 5. The genital stage The psychosocial crises approach A. Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development B. Erikson’s eight psychosocial stages 1. Basic trust versus mistrust 2. Autonomy versus shame and doubt 3. Initiative versus guilt 4. Industry versus inferiority 5. Identity and repudiation versus identity confusion 6. Intimacy and solidarity versus isolation 7. Generativity versus stagnation 8. Integrity versus despair The cognitive developmental approach - Piaget A. Cognitive structures B. Functional invariants 1. Adaptation a. Assimilation b. Accommodation c. Equilibration 2. Organization 8 C. D. IV. V. VI. Schemes Stages 1. Sensorimotor stage 2. Preoperational stage 3. Concrete operational stage 4. Formal operational stage The cultural framework approach A. Lev Vygotsky’s concept of development 1. Elementary processes 2. Psychological processes 3. Social and cultural processes 4. Internalization 5. Speech B. Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development 1. Difference between actual development and potential development 2. Scaffolding The behavioral approach A. Skinner and operant conditioning 1. Environment as key to understanding behavior 2. Behavior is a causal chain of three links a. Stimulus b. Response c. Reinforcement, punishment, or extinction 3. Two kinds of reinforcement a. Positive reinforcement b. Negative reinforcement 4. Development is continuous B. Bandura and social (cognitive) learning 1. Emphasis on modeling (observational learning) 2. Bandura’s interpretation of what happens as a result of observing others Current status and future direction of developmental theory A. Gottlieb’s interactions among levels of development 1. Genetic 2. Neural 3. Behavioral 4. Environmental B. Lerner’s developmental contextualism 1. Context 2. No single level is the primary or ultimate influence on behavior and development C. Elder’s Life Course Theory D. Evolutionary Developmental Psychology 9 Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, the student should be able to complete the following goals: 1. Identify and describe Freud’s structures of the psyche. 2. State the goal of a defense mechanism and provide examples of common defense mechanisms. 3. Identify and describe the developmental stages in Freud’s theory. 4. State Erikson’s meaning of crisis and describe the eight stages of psychosocial development. 5. Identify and explain key concepts of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. 6. Describe the input and significance of culture in development. 7. Examine the role of social processes in Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development. 8. Explain the role of reinforcement, punishment, and extinction in Skinner’s behavioral theory. 9. Examine Bandura’s social (cognitive) learning theory. 10. Define the levels of interactive influences in development. 11. Describe developmental contextualism and the four major forces involved. 12. Briefly discuss life course theory and evolutionary developmental psychology. Key Terms accommodation adaptation anal stage assimilation cognitive structures developmental contextualism ego equilibration evolutionary developmental psychology functional invariants genital stage id identity crisis latency stage life course theory modeling negative reinforcement operant conditioning oral stage organization phallic stage positive reinforcement psychoanalytic theory reinforcement scaffolding schemes social (cognitive) learning theory superego zone of proximal development 10 Lecture Suggestions 1. Similarities and Differences Between Freud and Erikson Psychoanalytic theory describes developmental changes in a person’s sense of self. Freud and Erikson’s theories of personality development are grounded in psychoanalytic theory, yet their models have several differences. Discuss with the class the differences between Freud and Erikson’s theories. Both Freud and Erikson were stage theorists, believing that one’s personality is shaped by one’s success in moving through various stages of development. Freud and Erikson’s theories also claim that one’s personality is a result of the interaction of one’s internal needs and response to these needs from significant people in one’s environment. Freud and Erikson both claimed that behavior is determined by one’s unconscious and conscious motives; however, Freud and Erikson disagreed on some issues. Freud’s drive theory focuses on the importance of meeting instinctual drives. He cited these drives as the sexual drive, the life-preserving drive, and the aggressive drive. Erikson, however, claimed that behavior could be best understood by the drive for identity, a cognitive process. According to Erikson, cognitive skills develop independently and are not simply a function of basic gratification. Erikson also argued that stage changes were a result of changes in one’s social environment and maturation. Freud, however, argued that stage changes were caused by maturational changes in the nervous system. As the nervous system matures, body sensitivity shifts, thus changing one’s internal drives. 2. Comparing Skinner and Piaget Piaget and Skinner can be compared by pointing out the different questions each asks and how these questions are related to their different assumptions. On one level, it appears that Piaget and Skinner are interested in the same thing—how children learn. Looking at each theorist’s premise puts his results into perspective. Piaget is interested in cognitive structure, whereas Skinner is interested in the learning environment. Skinner does not think that we can look into the “black box” of the mind, whereas Piaget wants to show the structure of the thinking process. Piaget asks children to explain why they think the way they do. For example, can the child tell him why the moon appears to follow him when he walks down the country lane? Can the child provide reasons for the difference in the water levels as the liquid is poured from the tall, thin vessel into the short, wide vessel? On the other hand, Skinner would ask: How can the child be reinforced so that she will be able to state correctly that the moon appears to follow the person down the lane because of the great distance between the moon and the child? How can I teach the child that the volume of water does not change when the shape of the container changes? Skinner wants to know how to change a child’s behavior; Piaget wants to understand how a child thinks or conceptualizes his or her environment. 11 Piaget and Skinner both ask “How do children learn?” but the question means different things to each theorist. To Piaget, the question means: “How does the mind organize information as the child interacts with the environment?” To Skinner, the question means: “How can the environment be modified to reinforce the child’s behavior?” Piaget is interested in the structure of the mind, whereas Skinner is interested in its function. This basic difference may be at the heart of the differences in the approaches, questions, and methods of each theorist in examining the question “How do children learn?” 3. Comparing Piaget and Vygotsky Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development posits that behavior is the result of the merging of the physiological and psychological changes in a child. Like Piaget, Vygotsky believed that children construct knowledge, but Vygotsky placed more emphasis on the environment in which a child is raised. According to Vygotsky, parents structure children’s environments according to the traditions and norms of their culture. Piaget stated that knowledge is the result of the adaptation of an environmental stimulus, which becomes a schema, and results in knowledge development. Vygotsky, however, focused on domains of behavior, organized through cultural systems of meaning. Culture denotes the varied meanings ascribed to behaviors according to different cultures in which children are raised (e.g., gender roles, roles of children). In other words, constructed knowledge results from the interaction of a child’s behavior, the cultural context, and “meaning making.” Piaget used the term schemas to describe organized pieces of knowledge representing objects and the connections between objects. In a cultural contextual model of cognitive development, the term script is used, referring to the varied meaningful aspects of an event or activity. Events and activities include social roles or sequences of actions, such as preparing for bed or going to school. To Piaget, mechanisms of change in cognitive development are the processes of assimilation and accommodation. To Vygotsky, the mechanism of change is the intermingling of biological maturation and sociocultural contexts and experiences. Ask students to think critically about the similarities and differences between these theories. How would Piaget and Vygotsky explain differences, or unevenness, in cognitive development? Piaget argued that differences in performance vary from one version of a problem to another, even though the problems require the same mental logic. He claimed that the differences are caused by subtle variations, or misalignment, of thought processes. Piaget used the term decolage to describe this variation. Vygotsky claimed that differences in performance are caused by the many scripts required by varied contexts that children encounter and how children refine existing scripts. When a new experience presents an unfamiliar context, existing scripts appear illogical. Unevenness in performance occurs until children can develop a new meaning-making script. 4. Basic Operant Conditioning Principles 12 In operant conditioning, most of our behaviors have consequences. When a student takes an exam, he gets a grade; when an adolescent cuts classes, she has to stay after school; when a driver parks illegally, he gets fined; when a cardholder returns overdue library books, she gets fined; and when we speed, we get a ticket. The probability of our behavior occurring again depends on the consequences that follow that behavior. Some behaviors are followed by rewards, or reinforcers. Reinforcement results in an increase in a particular behavior. When a student prepares well in advance for an exam and receives a good grade, his studying behavior has been reinforced, and he is likely to continue this behavior in the future. If an older woman responds to a community request for help with a clothing drive for the homeless, and as a result is praised for being part of that effort, her helping behavior has been reinforced, and she is likely to help with a future clothing drive. Some behaviors are followed by punishment. Punishments result in a decrease in a particular behavior. If a driver carelessly parks her car in an illegal lane and receives a $25 fine, she may be less likely to park in that spot in the future. The difference between negative reinforcement and punishment is often misunderstood. A negative reinforcement removes an aversive stimulus, which results in the probability that the behavior will occur again, whereas a punishment produces an aversive stimulus, thus resulting in a decrease in the behavior. Students should be able to recognize the difficulty of controlling behavior. It is often difficult to grasp why individuals continue certain behaviors. Discussion of antecedents, behaviors, and consequences of those behaviors for selected populations (such as juvenile delinquents) and treatments (such as token economies) may help students understand the laws of learning principles. Instructor’s CD-ROM Resource Activities 1. Chapter 3 Science of Lifespan Development C. Academic Family Tree Classroom or Student Activities 1. Schedules of Reinforcement In the real world, behaviors are not reinforced every time they occur. Rather than being reinforced continuously, most behaviors are reinforced on a partial, or intermittent, schedule. Schedules of reinforcement refer to when behavior is to be reinforced. Intermittent reinforcement schedules have two dimensions. One dimension is concerned with whether reinforcement is delivered after a specified number of responses or amount of time (called a fixed schedule) or by an average number of responses or amount of time (called a variable schedule). An 13 individual can also be reinforced on the number of responses (a ratio schedule) or on the amount of time that elapses (an interval schedule). Students can more easily understand the impact of different schedules of reinforcement if they identify aspects of their student life that fit each of the four schedules. For example, if a course grade is determined by their scores on 10 “pop” quizzes given throughout the semester, the grade is given in terms of a variable interval schedule. Ask students how this type of schedule influences studying patterns (typically, one learns to study a “little” regularly to maximize results). In another course in which a test is given every ninth class period, students are on a fixed interval schedule. Ask students how this pattern influences studying patterns (typically, more studying occurs in the few days right before a test and little immediately after a test). Ask students to think of ways in which they are on a ratio schedule. Ask students what they can do to reinforce themselves to avoid disadvantages of the schedule used by the course grading system. 14 It would also be helpful to discuss schedules of reinforcement in terms of other life experiences (e.g., dieting, leisure activities, gardening, and dating). Ask students whether behavior is likely to persist or become extinguished after a particular schedule of reinforcement. Discuss the importance of schedules in maintaining desirable behaviors. 2. Search the Literature Based on the information on psychoanalytic theory described in the text in this chapter and the information on research design in Chapter 1, ask students if they can think of any studies that would indicate that Freud was right about defense mechanisms. Ask students to conduct a literature search using appropriate software to locate articles examining Freud’s theory of defense mechanisms. What are the findings? Compare findings from different studies. 3. Finding Contexts in Development Provide a review of Gottlieb’s levels of interaction that influence development (i.e., genetic, neural, behavioral, and environmental). Remind students that these levels are bidirectional, with each level dependent on the next, and influenced by the next level for the production of a behavior or trait. Then review Lerner’s concept of developmental contextualism, with the four major forces in development (i.e., physical settings, social influences, personal characteristics, and influence of time). Each group of students should pick a developmental event (e.g., walking, learning to read). Half of the groups should analyze their topic using Gottlieb’s levels and determine how those processes would produce a behavior or trait. The remaining groups should use Lerner’s forces. After taking time to reorganize their thoughts, the students may present their conclusions, and in a class setting contrast and compare these approaches. They may then evaluate the models for completeness in describing the developmental process. Their evaluations should include comparisons with a strict biological or environmental explanation. This activity allows students to internalize the richness and accuracy of interactions rather than adherence to a unidirectional dichotomy of nature versus nurture alone. Questions for Review and Discussion 1. Identify the three structures of the psyche and explain the role of each and how each structure relates to the other two. 2. Examine the defense mechanisms and give an example of each. 3. What are Freud’s stages of personality development and the possible outcomes for each? 4. Where are you in Erikson’s stages of development? Does his concept of crisis for that stage “fit” you? Please explain why it does or does not seem realistic. 5. What are examples of egocentrism in our behavior? Describe the behavior and explain how it matches Piaget’s definition of egocentrism. 15 6. Explore how assimilation and accommodation work as a child tries to understand the world. 7. Give examples of Vygotsky's concept of social and cultural forces influencing cognitive development. The zone of proximal development describes growth that does not emanate from within each child. Explain this concept of Vygotsky’s theory. Consider your own theory of cognitive development. What are some of the assumptions you make about ways in which other people’s behavior is affected by their beliefs, emotions, or ideas? How do your assumptions fit into a cultural contextual model of cognitive development? 8. 9. 10. 11. Provide examples of positive and negative reinforcement that parents can use to encourage healthy development in their children. Give two examples of observational learning in which learning occurs without reinforcement. Web Site Resources Child Development www.srcd.org Developmental Psychology www.apa.org/journals/dev.html Society for Research in Adolescence www.personal.psu.edu.\faculty\n\x\nxd10\ peersig.htm Society for Research on Adult Development www.adultdevelopment.org Theories of Child Development www.childstudy.net/ Sigmund Freud www.psychoanalysis.org Jean Piaget www.piaget.org Skinner, Erikson, & Piaget www.psy.pdx.edu/PsiCafe/KeyTheorists/ Albert Bandura www.emory.edu/EDUCATION/mfp/bandura bio.html Lerner and Developmental Contextualism www.geocities.com/waiyc/psych/development al.html 16