Download CHAPTER 2

CHAPTER 2
THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT:
INTERPRETING THE LIFESPAN
Summary Outline
I.
II.
III.
The psychoanalytic approach - Freud
A. Structures of the mind
1.
The id
2.
The ego
3.
The superego
B.
Defending the unconscious mind: Defense mechanisms
1.
Repression
2.
Compensation
3.
Rationalization
4.
Introjection
5.
Regression
6.
Displacement
C. The developing personality
1.
The oral stage
2.
The anal stage
3.
The phallic stage
4.
The latency stage
5.
The genital stage
The psychosocial crises approach
A. Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development
B.
Erikson’s eight psychosocial stages
1.
Basic trust versus mistrust
2.
Autonomy versus shame and doubt
3.
Initiative versus guilt
4.
Industry versus inferiority
5.
Identity and repudiation versus identity confusion
6.
Intimacy and solidarity versus isolation
7.
Generativity versus stagnation
8.
Integrity versus despair
The cognitive developmental approach - Piaget
A. Cognitive structures
B.
Functional invariants
1.
Adaptation
a.
Assimilation
b.
Accommodation
c.
Equilibration
2.
Organization
8
C.
D.
IV.
V.
VI.
Schemes
Stages
1.
Sensorimotor stage
2.
Preoperational stage
3.
Concrete operational stage
4.
Formal operational stage
The cultural framework approach
A. Lev Vygotsky’s concept of development
1. Elementary processes
2. Psychological processes
3.
Social and cultural processes
4.
Internalization
5.
Speech
B.
Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development
1.
Difference between actual development and potential development
2.
Scaffolding
The behavioral approach
A. Skinner and operant conditioning
1.
Environment as key to understanding behavior
2.
Behavior is a causal chain of three links
a.
Stimulus
b.
Response
c.
Reinforcement, punishment, or extinction
3.
Two kinds of reinforcement
a.
Positive reinforcement
b.
Negative reinforcement
4.
Development is continuous
B.
Bandura and social (cognitive) learning
1.
Emphasis on modeling (observational learning)
2.
Bandura’s interpretation of what happens as a result of observing others
Current status and future direction of developmental theory
A. Gottlieb’s interactions among levels of development
1.
Genetic
2.
Neural
3.
Behavioral
4.
Environmental
B.
Lerner’s developmental contextualism
1.
Context
2.
No single level is the primary or ultimate influence on behavior and
development
C. Elder’s Life Course Theory
D. Evolutionary Developmental Psychology
9
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, the student should be able to complete the following goals:
1.
Identify and describe Freud’s structures of the psyche.
2.
State the goal of a defense mechanism and provide examples of common defense
mechanisms.
3.
Identify and describe the developmental stages in Freud’s theory.
4.
State Erikson’s meaning of crisis and describe the eight stages of psychosocial
development.
5.
Identify and explain key concepts of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.
6.
Describe the input and significance of culture in development.
7.
Examine the role of social processes in Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development.
8.
Explain the role of reinforcement, punishment, and extinction in Skinner’s behavioral
theory.
9.
Examine Bandura’s social (cognitive) learning theory.
10.
Define the levels of interactive influences in development.
11.
Describe developmental contextualism and the four major forces involved.
12.
Briefly discuss life course theory and evolutionary developmental psychology.
Key Terms
accommodation
adaptation
anal stage
assimilation
cognitive structures
developmental contextualism
ego
equilibration
evolutionary developmental psychology
functional invariants
genital stage
id
identity crisis
latency stage
life course theory
modeling
negative reinforcement
operant conditioning
oral stage
organization
phallic stage
positive reinforcement
psychoanalytic theory
reinforcement
scaffolding
schemes
social (cognitive) learning theory
superego
zone of proximal development
10
Lecture Suggestions
1.
Similarities and Differences Between Freud and Erikson
Psychoanalytic theory describes developmental changes in a person’s sense of self. Freud and
Erikson’s theories of personality development are grounded in psychoanalytic theory, yet their
models have several differences. Discuss with the class the differences between Freud and
Erikson’s theories.
Both Freud and Erikson were stage theorists, believing that one’s personality is shaped by
one’s success in moving through various stages of development. Freud and Erikson’s theories
also claim that one’s personality is a result of the interaction of one’s internal needs and
response to these needs from significant people in one’s environment. Freud and Erikson both
claimed that behavior is determined by one’s unconscious and conscious motives; however,
Freud and Erikson disagreed on some issues.
Freud’s drive theory focuses on the importance of meeting instinctual drives. He cited these
drives as the sexual drive, the life-preserving drive, and the aggressive drive. Erikson,
however, claimed that behavior could be best understood by the drive for identity, a cognitive
process. According to Erikson, cognitive skills develop independently and are not simply a
function of basic gratification. Erikson also argued that stage changes were a result of changes
in one’s social environment and maturation. Freud, however, argued that stage changes were
caused by maturational changes in the nervous system. As the nervous system matures, body
sensitivity shifts, thus changing one’s internal drives.
2.
Comparing Skinner and Piaget
Piaget and Skinner can be compared by pointing out the different questions each asks and how
these questions are related to their different assumptions. On one level, it appears that Piaget
and Skinner are interested in the same thing—how children learn. Looking at each theorist’s
premise puts his results into perspective. Piaget is interested in cognitive structure, whereas
Skinner is interested in the learning environment. Skinner does not think that we can look into
the “black box” of the mind, whereas Piaget wants to show the structure of the thinking
process. Piaget asks children to explain why they think the way they do. For example, can the
child tell him why the moon appears to follow him when he walks down the country lane? Can
the child provide reasons for the difference in the water levels as the liquid is poured from the
tall, thin vessel into the short, wide vessel?
On the other hand, Skinner would ask: How can the child be reinforced so that she will be able
to state correctly that the moon appears to follow the person down the lane because of the great
distance between the moon and the child? How can I teach the child that the volume of water
does not change when the shape of the container changes? Skinner wants to know how to
change a child’s behavior; Piaget wants to understand how a child thinks or conceptualizes his
or her environment.
11
Piaget and Skinner both ask “How do children learn?” but the question means different things
to each theorist. To Piaget, the question means: “How does the mind organize information as
the child interacts with the environment?” To Skinner, the question means: “How can the
environment be modified to reinforce the child’s behavior?” Piaget is interested in the structure
of the mind, whereas Skinner is interested in its function. This basic difference may be at the
heart of the differences in the approaches, questions, and methods of each theorist in
examining the question “How do children learn?”
3.
Comparing Piaget and Vygotsky
Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development posits that behavior is the result of the merging of
the physiological and psychological changes in a child. Like Piaget, Vygotsky believed that
children construct knowledge, but Vygotsky placed more emphasis on the environment in
which a child is raised. According to Vygotsky, parents structure children’s environments
according to the traditions and norms of their culture. Piaget stated that knowledge is the
result of the adaptation of an environmental stimulus, which becomes a schema, and results in
knowledge development. Vygotsky, however, focused on domains of behavior, organized
through cultural systems of meaning. Culture denotes the varied meanings ascribed to
behaviors according to different cultures in which children are raised (e.g., gender roles, roles
of children). In other words, constructed knowledge results from the interaction of a child’s
behavior, the cultural context, and “meaning making.”
Piaget used the term schemas to describe organized pieces of knowledge representing objects
and the connections between objects. In a cultural contextual model of cognitive development,
the term script is used, referring to the varied meaningful aspects of an event or activity. Events
and activities include social roles or sequences of actions, such as preparing for bed or going to
school. To Piaget, mechanisms of change in cognitive development are the processes of
assimilation and accommodation. To Vygotsky, the mechanism of change is the intermingling
of biological maturation and sociocultural contexts and experiences.
Ask students to think critically about the similarities and differences between these theories.
How would Piaget and Vygotsky explain differences, or unevenness, in cognitive
development? Piaget argued that differences in performance vary from one version of a
problem to another, even though the problems require the same mental logic. He claimed that
the differences are caused by subtle variations, or misalignment, of thought processes. Piaget
used the term decolage to describe this variation. Vygotsky claimed that differences in
performance are caused by the many scripts required by varied contexts that children
encounter and how children refine existing scripts. When a new experience presents an
unfamiliar context, existing scripts appear illogical. Unevenness in performance occurs until
children can develop a new meaning-making script.
4.
Basic Operant Conditioning Principles
12
In operant conditioning, most of our behaviors have consequences. When a student takes an
exam, he gets a grade; when an adolescent cuts classes, she has to stay after school; when a
driver parks illegally, he gets fined; when a cardholder returns overdue library books, she gets
fined; and when we speed, we get a ticket.
The probability of our behavior occurring again depends on the consequences that follow that
behavior. Some behaviors are followed by rewards, or reinforcers. Reinforcement results in an
increase in a particular behavior. When a student prepares well in advance for an exam and
receives a good grade, his studying behavior has been reinforced, and he is likely to continue
this behavior in the future. If an older woman responds to a community request for help with a
clothing drive for the homeless, and as a result is praised for being part of that effort, her
helping behavior has been reinforced, and she is likely to help with a future clothing drive.
Some behaviors are followed by punishment. Punishments result in a decrease in a particular
behavior. If a driver carelessly parks her car in an illegal lane and receives a $25 fine, she may
be less likely to park in that spot in the future.
The difference between negative reinforcement and punishment is often misunderstood. A
negative reinforcement removes an aversive stimulus, which results in the probability that the
behavior will occur again, whereas a punishment produces an aversive stimulus, thus resulting
in a decrease in the behavior.
Students should be able to recognize the difficulty of controlling behavior. It is often difficult to
grasp why individuals continue certain behaviors. Discussion of antecedents, behaviors, and
consequences of those behaviors for selected populations (such as juvenile delinquents) and
treatments (such as token economies) may help students understand the laws of learning
principles.
Instructor’s CD-ROM Resource Activities
1.
Chapter 3 Science of Lifespan Development
C. Academic Family Tree
Classroom or Student Activities
1.
Schedules of Reinforcement
In the real world, behaviors are not reinforced every time they occur. Rather than being
reinforced continuously, most behaviors are reinforced on a partial, or intermittent, schedule.
Schedules of reinforcement refer to when behavior is to be reinforced. Intermittent reinforcement
schedules have two dimensions. One dimension is concerned with whether reinforcement is
delivered after a specified number of responses or amount of time (called a fixed schedule) or
by an average number of responses or amount of time (called a variable schedule). An
13
individual can also be reinforced on the number of responses (a ratio schedule) or on the
amount of time that elapses (an interval schedule).
Students can more easily understand the impact of different schedules of reinforcement if they
identify aspects of their student life that fit each of the four schedules. For example, if a course
grade is determined by their scores on 10 “pop” quizzes given throughout the semester, the
grade is given in terms of a variable interval schedule. Ask students how this type of schedule
influences studying patterns (typically, one learns to study a “little” regularly to maximize
results). In another course in which a test is given every ninth class period, students are on a
fixed interval schedule. Ask students how this pattern influences studying patterns (typically,
more studying occurs in the few days right before a test and little immediately after a test). Ask
students to think of ways in which they are on a ratio schedule. Ask students what they can do
to reinforce themselves to avoid disadvantages of the schedule used by the course grading
system.
14
It would also be helpful to discuss schedules of reinforcement in terms of other life experiences
(e.g., dieting, leisure activities, gardening, and dating). Ask students whether behavior is likely
to persist or become extinguished after a particular schedule of reinforcement. Discuss the
importance of schedules in maintaining desirable behaviors.
2.
Search the Literature
Based on the information on psychoanalytic theory described in the text in this chapter and the
information on research design in Chapter 1, ask students if they can think of any studies that
would indicate that Freud was right about defense mechanisms. Ask students to conduct a
literature search using appropriate software to locate articles examining Freud’s theory of
defense mechanisms. What are the findings? Compare findings from different studies.
3.
Finding Contexts in Development
Provide a review of Gottlieb’s levels of interaction that influence development (i.e., genetic,
neural, behavioral, and environmental). Remind students that these levels are bidirectional,
with each level dependent on the next, and influenced by the next level for the production of a
behavior or trait. Then review Lerner’s concept of developmental contextualism, with the four
major forces in development (i.e., physical settings, social influences, personal characteristics,
and influence of time).
Each group of students should pick a developmental event (e.g., walking, learning to read).
Half of the groups should analyze their topic using Gottlieb’s levels and determine how those
processes would produce a behavior or trait. The remaining groups should use Lerner’s forces.
After taking time to reorganize their thoughts, the students may present their conclusions, and
in a class setting contrast and compare these approaches. They may then evaluate the models
for completeness in describing the developmental process. Their evaluations should include
comparisons with a strict biological or environmental explanation. This activity allows students
to internalize the richness and accuracy of interactions rather than adherence to a
unidirectional dichotomy of nature versus nurture alone.
Questions for Review and Discussion
1.
Identify the three structures of the psyche and explain the role of each and how
each structure relates to the other two.
2.
Examine the defense mechanisms and give an example of each.
3.
What are Freud’s stages of personality development and the possible outcomes for
each?
4.
Where are you in Erikson’s stages of development? Does his concept of crisis for
that stage “fit” you? Please explain why it does or does not seem realistic.
5.
What are examples of egocentrism in our behavior? Describe the behavior and
explain how it matches Piaget’s definition of egocentrism.
15
6.
Explore how assimilation and accommodation work as a child tries to understand
the world.
7.
Give examples of Vygotsky's concept of social and cultural forces influencing
cognitive development.
The zone of proximal development describes growth that does not emanate from
within each child. Explain this concept of Vygotsky’s theory.
Consider your own theory of cognitive development. What are some of the
assumptions you make about ways in which other people’s behavior is affected by
their beliefs, emotions, or ideas? How do your assumptions fit into a cultural
contextual model of cognitive development?
8.
9.
10.
11.
Provide examples of positive and negative reinforcement that parents can use to
encourage healthy development in their children.
Give two examples of observational learning in which learning occurs without
reinforcement.
Web Site Resources
Child Development
www.srcd.org
Developmental Psychology
www.apa.org/journals/dev.html
Society for Research in Adolescence
www.personal.psu.edu.\faculty\n\x\nxd10\
peersig.htm
Society for Research on Adult Development
www.adultdevelopment.org
Theories of Child Development
www.childstudy.net/
Sigmund Freud
www.psychoanalysis.org
Jean Piaget
www.piaget.org
Skinner, Erikson, & Piaget
www.psy.pdx.edu/PsiCafe/KeyTheorists/
Albert Bandura
www.emory.edu/EDUCATION/mfp/bandura
bio.html
Lerner and Developmental Contextualism
www.geocities.com/waiyc/psych/development
al.html
16