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Chapter 8: Learning Riane Barrera Asia Gandy Brianna Jones Johnia Murray David Stewart How do we learn? Learning: a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience We learn by association Associative Learning: Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli or a response and its consequences Being able to predict the immediate future Three forms of learning: Conditioning Operant Observational Classical Conditioning A type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neural stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus. Behaviorism: The view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Types of Stimuli and Response Unconditioned Stimulus and Response (US and UR) US – a stimulus that will evoke the most basic, natural and innate of responses in any organism UR – a response that happens uncontrollably after being presented with the US Conditioned Stimulus and Response (CS and CR) CS – a stimulus that has been associated with the US to evoke the same response as before CR – a response that happens uncontrollably after being presented with the CS because the association has taught the organism that the US will follow. It’s almost in a sense of preparation when discussing the CS, US, and CR. Pavlov’s Experiments Studying salivary secretion in dogs When he puts food in the dog’s mouth the animal begins to salivate Notices the dog began salivating to stimuli associated with food Sight of food, food dish, presence or sound of the person who usually brought the food Experiment Isolated dog in a room and attached a measuring device to measure its saliva Present food from an adjacent room Sliding in food bowl, blowing meat powder into dog’s mouth at a specific moment, paired various neutral stimuli with food in the dog’s mouth If the neutral stimulus regularly signaled the arrival of food, would the dog associate the two stimuli? Would it begin salivating to the neutral stimulus in anticipation of the food? Yes and Yes Before placing food in the dog’s mouth, Pavlov sounded a tone. After repeatedly pairing sound and food, the dog began salivating at the sound alone. Pavlov’s Experiments The dog and food experiment lead to a gateway showing 5 major conditioning processes: Acquisition Extinction Spontaneous Recovery Generalization Discrimination Acquisition The initial stage in classical conditioning The phase associating a neutral stimulus with an US so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a CR. It’s proven that it can be done but timing is the next question of the stimulus – response relationship. In general, only half a second is really necessary. Why? Survival. Conditioning to the CS doesn’t happen when the US precedes it. If the event happened already, the significance of the CS is lost. The connection of survival can be understood through sexual arousal by: A male and female Japanese quail and a red light or Onion breath and a kiss from a woman Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery Extinction – the diminishing effect of the CR when there isn’t a US When you continue to give the CS without the US to follow, the CR slowly begins to go away. Why? The subject is learning to dissociate the two because there was a change to where the CS doesn’t equal the previous US anymore. Although you learn the dissociation, the response doesn’t completely go away. Extinction only suppresses the CR. Spontaneous Recovery – the spontaneous response to a dissociated CS. You can take away the CS and US for a long period of time (several hours or more) and use it again later and get the same reaction. Why? How? Why – although it has been dissociated, you still remember it for what it once was but the reaction will be a weaker form How – the neurons in your brain tend to make connections and ‘bonds’ that can’t be broken which leaves it to be embedded. Think of riding a bike. . . Generalization The recognizing of stimuli that are similar to the CS that will elicit the same response but in a weaker form depending upon how similar or dissimilar the stimuli is to the original CS Ex. A dog and being scratched or rubbed The CS can be being scratched on the left thigh. As the form of being touched changes so does the strength of the response. As the location of being touched changes, so does the strength of the reaction. Although it may know the difference between them all, the dog will give a variation of the response depending upon how close or far away you are to it’s jackpot spot (scratching the left thigh)! Discrimination Learning and demonstrating the ability to differentiate between a CS and other irrelevant stimuli Can determine you livelihood. Why? No matter how minute or monumental the stimuli, they can evoke vastly different responses. Knowing the difference are a key tool in your survival and/or sanity (I don’t believe you. How? Think of dogs. Little dog = a yelp or a very weak bark with a pinching bite, Big dog = an alarming and booming bark with a strong and bone breaking bite Think of snakes. Although it’s not the best way to tell the difference, the shape of their eyes can tell you which have poisonous venom in their bite and those that have a harmless bite. Typically round eyes = non venomous slit, cat like eyes = venomous. (There are snake families in which they fall together. Some can mimic an aunt, uncle or cousin and be venomous through head shape and eyes and vice versa. Nevertheless, snakes are DANGEROUS and you should STAY AWAY and CLEAR them!!!) Limits to Classical Conditioning? Of course. . . Two, actually Cognitive Processes – understanding a chain of events in chronological order. ROBERT RESCORLA and ALLAN WAGNER argued that when two significant events occur close together in time, one can learn the predictability of the second event. Through the experience, one can learn the expectancy of the second event Rat and electrical shock Alcoholics and nausea (failed attempt) Biological Predispositions – embedded and innate behaviors due to DNA. It’s capacity to be conditioned is constrained by its biology. This allows it to take in just enough to enhance their chances of survival. Whichever sense is your primary lifeline, it can be deterred but your others won’t be effected. This change can be passed down generation to generation leading to a superior species of that kind. (Darwin’s principle of natural selection and survival of the fittest) Operant Conditioning A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforce(r) or diminished if followed by a punisher. Respondent Behavior: behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus Learned through classical conditioning Operant Behavior: behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences Is the organism learning associations between events that it doesn’t control or is it learning associations between its behavior and resulting events? Classical conditioning is learning associations between events that it doesn’t control Operant conditioning is learning associations between its behavior and resulting events Skinner’s Experiment Law of effect: Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely Skinner develops a “behavioral technology” Reveals principles of behavior control Taught pigeons how to walk in a figure 8, play Ping-Pong, and to keep a missile on course by pecking a target on a screen His first study was with rats Operant Chamber: aka Skinner box, containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforce(r), with attached devices to record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking. Shows how to pull habits out of a rat Skinner’s Experiment: Shaping Behavior Shaping: an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior Reinforcer: any event that strengthens the behavior it follows The food that guided an animal’s action toward a desired behavior. Conditioning a hungry rat to press a bar Observe at how the rat naturally act before training Build on existing behaviors Give the rat a reward each time it approaches the bar Once that is a regular, give the require the rat to move closer before awarding it Finally, require the rat to touch the bar before giving it a reward Rewarding responses that are closer to the desired behavior and ignoring all other responses Can be used to determine what nonverbal organisms perceive Rewarding a pigeon for pecking after seeing a human faces, but not for any other image will teach a pigeon to recognize human faces. Skinner’s Experiment: Types of Reinforcers Positive reinforcers may be tangible, praise/attention, an activity (being able to borrow the car) Anything that serves to increase a behavior is a reinforcer Reinforcers vary between people and situations Positive Reinforcement: increasing behavior by presenting positive stimuli (food). A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response Food is positive reinforcer for hungry animals Negative Reinforcement: increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli (a shock). A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response Not punishment Taking aspirin to relieve a headache Pushing snooze on a sounding alarm Skinner’s Experiment: Types of Reinforcers Primary & Conditioned Reinforcers Primary reinforcers: An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need Receiving food when hungry Conditioned reinforcers: A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; aka secondary reinforcer If a rat knows that a light signals food coming, it will work to turn on the light. The light is the conditioned reinforcer Immediate and Delayed Reinforcers Rat scenario Before performing “wanted” behavior, the rat engages in “unwanted” behavior When the food reinforcer immediately follows one of the behaviors, that response becomes more likely to recur If the rat presses the bar, and the reinforcer is delayed, the rat will not learn to press the bar However, humans still respond to delayed reinforcers Pay check at the end of the week Postpone immediate awards for greater long-term rewards Some immediate reinforcers are better sounding than delayed reinforcers Smoking a cigarette today compared to cancer thrity years from now Skinner’s Experiment: Reinforcement Schedules Continuous reinforcement: reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs Learning occurs rapidly Extinction occurs rapidly When the reinforcement stops, the rat stops pressing the bar When a usually dependable candy machine stops delivering a chocolate bar twice in a row, we stop putting money into it Real life does not provide continuous reinforcement Partial (Intermittent) reinforcement: Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement Produces greater persistence A pigeon has learned to peck a key to receive food The experimental gradually decreases the delivery of food until it’s unpredictable Pigeons may peck 150,000 times without a reward Keep trying because of hope Skinner’s Experiment: Reinforcement Schedules Fixed-ratio schedule: a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified amount of times One reinforcer for every 30 responses Once conditioned, the animal will pause briefly after a reinforcer then return to a high rate of responding Variable-ratio schedule: a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses Slot-machines Produces a high rate of responding because reinforcers increase as the number of responses increase Skinner’s Experiment: Reinforcement Schedules Fixed-interval schedule: a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed People checking more frequently for mail as the delivery time approaches Pigeons pecks a key more frequently as the anticipated time for reward approaches Not a steady rate of response Variable-interval schedule: a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals The “You’ve got mail” finally rewarding the persistence in rechecking for email Produce slow, steady responding The reinforcement principles of operant conditioning are universal Skinner’s Experiment: Punishment An event that decreases the behavior that it follows Usually administering an undesirable consequence or withdrawing a desirable one Rat shocked after touching forbidden object learns not to repeat that behavior Consequence: children who receive spankings are at increased risk for aggression, depression, and low self-esteem. This states physical punishment is followed by bad behavior and physical punishment is followed after that A claim used for those who are for milder forms of punishment Punished behavior may not be forgotten, but suppressed. The suppression can negatively reinforce the parent’s punishing behavior Child may learn not to do the bad behavior around the parent, but do it everywhere else Skinner’s Experiment: Punishment Physical punishment may increase aggressiveness by showing that aggression is a way to cope with problems Can create fear Person may associate fear with the bad behavior, the punisher, and the situation When punishments are unpredictable and inescapable, there’s a sense that events are beyond one’s control Feeling helpless and depression Punishment does not guide one toward desirable behavior Punishment = what not to do Reinforcer = what to do Punishment combined with reinforcer is more effective Punishment teaches how to avoid it Extending Skinner’s Understanding: Cognition and Operant Conditioning Skinner died resisting the belief of cognitive process having a necessary place in understanding conditioning However, cognitive process is shown when the rats began expecting a reward to come Latent Learning: learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it Studying rats in mazes With no reward, rats seem to develop a cognitive map (a mental representation of the maze) When placing a reward in the maze’s goal box, the rat will perform as well as a rat that was reinforced with food Rats developed latent learning Extending Skinner’s Understanding: Cognition and Operant Conditioning Intrinsic Motivation: a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake Can be decreased by excessive rewards Those who are intrinsically motivated work and play in hopes of obtaining joy, interest, self-expression, or challenge Extrinsic motivation: a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment Are you pressured to get an assignment done? Yes? You are extrinsically motivated Would you complete the assignment even if it wasn’t for a grade? Yes? You are intrinsically motivated Extending Skinner’s Understanding: Biological Predispositions Reinforcing a hamster with food Easily condition it to dig, why? It is a natural behavior to dig in search for food More difficult to condition a natural behavior not associated to food when using food as a reinforcer Animals can drift back to their natural ways Skinner’s Legacy External influences behavior, not internal knowledge Administer rewards to manage people more efficiently Critics He dehumanized people by neglecting a person’s freedom and their ability to control their own actions His response? People are naturally controlled by external consequences so use this characteristic for human betterment Skinner’s Legacy: Applications of Operant Conditioning At school Teaching machines offering immediate reinforcements for correct responses will shape learning A class learning concepts, some will understand quickly others will not. What do you do? Go through material according to each student’s rate of learning, provide positive feedback promptly and positive reinforcements OR Teach the class as a whole. The ones who get it succeed easily, the ones who don’t fail. The first ideal is not yet realistic, but Skinner believed it was achievable Students must be repeatedly told whether if they are right or wrong and then guided to the next step once right Computerized help will make the first ideal achievable (Web-based learning) Skinner’s Legacy: Applications of Operant Conditioning In Sports At Work Reinforcement as an athletic performer enhancer Reinforcement can boost productivity Reinforcing small success then gradually increasing the challenge Companies now offering a share of profits and ownership to employees Increase in motivation, moral, and cooperation when productivity is associated with rewards Skinner’s Legacy: Applications of Operant Conditioning At Home Spending behavior controlled by its consequences Those who pay a utility bill use 20% less energy compared to those who have a landlord that pays for it Parenting “Get ready for bed!” Parent giving in to the whines and defiance are reinforcing the behavior Parent yells, child realizes the seriousness, gets in bed which reinforces the behavior of the mom’s yelling Develops a destructive parent-child relationship Give children a reward when behaving Ignore the whining Explain the behavior when children act up Learning by Observation Observational learning: learning by observing others Modeling: the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior The phrase “monkey see, monkey do” Mirror neurons: frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy Helps children learn how to form new words when observing someone saying it Helps children increase empathy and ability to infer someone’s mental state It’s harder to frown when viewing someone smiling Bandura’s Experiments Preschool child is drawing while an adult in another part of the room is working with some Tinkertoys. The adult begins to kick and throw a large inflated Bobo doll and yelling “hit him down” or “kick him” The child, after observing this unexpected behavior, is taken to another room with plenty of fun toys. The experimenter tells the child she has decided to save those toys for other children and leads the child to a room containing a few toys, including a Bobo doll. Those who seen the adult’s outburst was more likely to do likewise than those who didn’t see it Through observing, we learn to anticipate a behavior’s consequence in similar situations More likely to imitate people that are similar to ourselves Applications of Observational Learning Bandura’s studies show that antisocial models may have antisocial effects After the Columbine High massacre, every state except Vermont had to handle with similar copycat incidents TV can influence people to think certain ways are THE way Physical intimidation is an effective way to control others Men are to be tough and women are to be gentle Shows how abusive parents have aggressive children Lessons we learn as a child are not easily unlearned as an adult Positive Observational Learning Prosocial behavior: positive, constructive, helpful behavior Prosocial models have prosocial effects People such as Ghandi and Martin Luther King, Jr. used nonviolent actions to inspires others to do likewise Parents can be prosocial models Seeing your parent be courageous and have strong morals can bring out the same in you when necessary Prosocial models are more effective when actions/words are consistent Hypocrisy can arise (do as I say and not as do) and children will imitate the same hypocrisy (doing what they did and saying what they said) Television and Observational Learning Real world not matching up with the world shown through TV Real world: 87% of crimes are nonviolent “Reality-based” show: 13% of crimes are nonviolent Does televised aggression or playing aggressive video games influence aggressive behavior? Possibly The more hours children watched violence, the more fights they got in two to six months later and the greater risk they have of developing aggressions as teens or adults Prolonged exposure to violence desensitizes viewers