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4 Categories of Organic Molecules Lipids Carbohydrates Fats/Oils/Steroids Glucose/Fructose Starch/Cellulose Molecules of LIFE Proteins Biochemicals Enzymes/Structure/ Movement/Antibodies (CHONPS) Nucleic Acids (DNA/RNA) 1. 2. H H O H N C H N N C N H H Amino group 3. OH OH R Carboxyl (acid) group O P N O CH2 O O Phosphate group 4. H H H H OH H Sugar H N Nitrogenous base (A) What is an example of a monomer and polymer? Answer: starch is a polymer made from the monomer glucose. What is peak enzyme reaction temp? What is peak reaction pH for pepsin and trypsin? Factors Affecting Enzymatic Speed • Temperature and pH • Substrate concentration • Enzyme concentration The Water Molecule Slightly Positive (+) Electrons hang out more often near around the oxygen atom. Covalent bonds between oxygen and hydrogen. Slightly Negative (-) Polarity – water is polar because of an uneven distribution of electrons between oxygen and hydrogen. Hydrogen Bonds • Because of their partial charges water molecules become attracted to each other by weak hydrogen bonds •Hydrogen bonds are not as strong as ionic or covalent bonds •Cohesion – attraction between molecules of the same substance •Adhesion - attraction between molecules of different substances. Other Unique Properties of Water • High specific heat • Expansion on freezing • High surface tension Cells and Cell Transport Two categories of cells Prokaryotic -No Nucleus -Less complex Eukaryotic -Cell wall (plants and bacteria) -Smaller Ribosomes less -Cell membrane complex -DNA -Cytoplasm -DNA is circular -Nucleus -Complex -Membrane bound organelles - Ribosomes larger and complex -Ribosomes -DNA is linear Vesicles • Structure: membrane bounded sac • Function: transports and/or stores cellular products Ribosomes • Structure: Small and grain-like, made of large and small subunits • Function: produce proteins from directions given by DNA Endoplasmic Reticulum • Structure: a maze of membranes • Rough ER: (ribosomes imbedded in membrane) produces and transports proteins. Golgi Apparatus • Structure: A stack of membranes • Function: to modify, sort and package materials (often proteins) from the ER for storage or to be transported outside the cell. Diffusion Osmosis Energy You can’t go to the beach and feel energized by the sun – you need a hot dog! Why? Mitochondria “Powerhouse of the Cell” Found: In the cytoplasm Structure: Rod-shaped with a folded double membrane Function: Provide the cell with energy. Chloroplast Found: In plant cells Structure: Stack of membranes that contain photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll) Function: Use energy from the sun to make carbs (photosynthesis) Energy PHOTOSYNTHESIS: Light energy 6 CO2 + 6 Carbon dioxide C6H12O6 H2O Water + Glucose PHOTOSYNTHESIS O2 6 Oxygen gas RESPIRATION: C6H12O6 Glucose + 6 O2 Oxygen gas 6 CO2 Carbon dioxide + 6 H2O Water + ATPs Energy Energy Protein Synthesis - Overview – The DNA of the gene is transcribed into RNA • Which is translated into protein • The flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to Protein is called the CENTRAL DOGMA DNA Transcription RNA Translation Protein Protein Synthesis (Overview) Central Dogma - FLOW IS FROM DNA TO RNA TO PROTEIN Protein Synthesis (Overview) FLOW IS FROM DNA TO RNA TO PROTEIN • Genes on DNA are expressed through proteins, which provide the molecular basis for inherited traits • A particular gene, is a linear sequence of many nucleotides – Specifies a polypeptide (long protein made of amino acids) Protein Synthesis (Overview) Genes - discrete units of hereditary information comprised of a nucleotide sequence found in a DNA molecule. DNA to DNA DNA to RNA Strand to be transcribed T A C T T C A A A A T C A T G A A G T T T T A G U A G DNA Transcription A U G A A G U U U RNA Start condon Stop condon Translation Polypeptide Met Lys Phe RNA to protein – The subunits of a ribosome • Hold the tRNA and mRNA close together during translation tRNA-binding sites Large subunit Growing polypeptide tRNA mRNAbinding site Small subunit mRNA Codons Genetics • Alleles – different forms of a gene – Ex. From pea plants: alleles T or t = tall (T) and short (t) • Homozygous – organisms that have 2 identical alleles for a particular trait • True-breeding for a particular trait – Ex: TT or tt Genetics • Heterozygous – organisms that have 2 different alleles for the same trait – Hybrid for that trait – Ex: Tt Phenotype – physical characteristics Ex: tall, short, yellow, green Genotype – genetic make-up Ex: TT, Tt, tt Other Patterns of Inheritance • Genes can act in various ways 1. Dominant vs. Recessive – one allele completely masks another allele. 2. Incomplete Dominance 1. Definition : one allele is not completely dominant over another Ex: flowers – white x red flowers = pink flowers Beyond Dominant and Recessive Codominance – Definition: both alleles contribute to the phenotype of the organism Ex: chicken feather – black and white alleles = black and white feathers Colors don’t blend like incomplete dominance Multiple Alleles • Definition: more than two alleles • (more than 2 alleles exist in a population not an individual) Ex: rabbit’s coat color Ex: human’s blood type blood-type donors and recipients Polygenic Traits • Definition: traits that are controlled by 2 or more genes Ex: fruit fly red eyes - 3 genes involved in making pigment – Diff. combo of genes produce different eye colors Ex: Human skin color – more than 4 different genes Gene Mutations Chromosomal Mutations • Types of chromosomal mutations: – Deletion: The loss of all or part of a chromosome – Duplication: A segment is repeated – Inversion: part of the chromosome is reverse from its usual direction. – Translocation: one chromosome breaks off an attaches to another chromosome. Meiosis and Mitosis Ecology -Levels of Organization Food Chains and Food Webs SUN Autotrophs Heterotroph 1. Food Chain – energy trapped by producers passed on when organisms eat and are eaten 2. Food Web – relationship more complex than a chain Trophic Levels and Ecological Pyramids Evolution – Natural Selection Evolution – Natural Selection