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Hominds part 2 • Out of Africa: DNA clocks • Multiregionalism: the Neanderthal within us all • Bipedalism DNA clocks • DNA can vary because of: – Mutation (random copying errors which accrue with time) – Recombination (1/2 of each parent’s DNA mixed to make child) DNA clocks: mitochondrial DNA • A portion of our DNA comes only from our mothers, and experiences ONLY mutation DNA clocks • mT DNA does not undergo recombination; only mutation • mT DNA is thought to mutate at a constant rate • Small mutations in DNA through time; 2-4% per million years • Calibrated against dateable fossils – Difference between 2 organisms • Last common ancestor between humans and chimps: 350,000 generations ago, or about 5-7 million years Out of Africa • mT DNA of thousands of humans all point to a last common maternal ancestor 200,000- 120,000 years ago -- very recent! • Furthermore: – Highest gene diversity in Africa – Asian, European genes present in African pools but not others – + statistical modeling --> • Homo sapiens did not mix genetically with homo erectus. Out of Africa • Neanderthal mT DNA: – Very different from modern humans – Hard to reconcile difference with possible presence of some Neanderthal ancestry in modern homo sapiens Neanderthals+ multiregionalism • Major skull differences: • Neanderthals have: – Longer, lower occipital bun – Big retromolar gap – Almost no chin – Strong browridge – Sloping face Early modern homo sapiens in Europe after Neanderthals were gone • Hybrid child • Adult skeletons with a range of brow ridges, retromolar gaps, occipital bun sizes • Simple explanation: some Neanderthalhomo sapiens interbreeding • Geneticist response: convergent evolution (requires puropose for retromolar gap, chin, and browridge) Other possibilities: • Hybrids didn’t survive for some reason • Hybrids DID survive, but we just not looking at the right part of the genome yet. • Y-chromosome data: recent African origin • How to use rest of genome subjected to recombination? Why bipedalism? • • • • Less exposure to sun Easier to carry children, food Easier to reach food in trees Less energetically expensive – Quadupedal knuckle-walking: ~35% more energy than walking on 2 legs • Dense forests: < 1 mile/day to gather food • Savannahs: 6-8 miles/day to gather food Bipedal movement freed up energy for brain development Brain development supported hunting • Higher calorie diet from meat allowed more brain development – C and N isotopes in bone give information about proportion of meat in diet – Neanderthal diet: almost all protein from meat