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ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Organic compounds always contain
carbon and hydrogen.
Inorganic compounds typically lack
carbon.
Organic Compounds
• The chain of
carbon atoms in
an organic
molecule is the
carbon skeleton.
• Functional groups
are responsible
for most of the
chemical
properties of a
particular organic
compound.
Table 2.3.1
Organic Compounds
• Small organic molecules can combine into
large macromolecules.
• Macromolecules are polymers consisting of
many small repeating molecules.
• The smaller molecules are called
monomers.
Organic Compounds
• Monomers join by dehydration synthesis or
condensation reactions.
• Polymers are broken apart by hydrolysis or
phosphorlysis
Figure 2.8
CARBOHYDRATES, LIPIDS, PROTEINS,
AND NUCLEIC ACIDS
• BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES ARE
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
• CARBOHYDRATES
• FATS AND LIPIDS
• PROTEINS
• NUCLEIC ACIDS
CARBOHYDRATES
• MONOSACCHARIDES = SUGARS
• DISACCHARIDES = SUGARS
• POLYSACCHARIDES = STARCHES &
CELLULOSE
Carbohydrates
• Are important for structure and as energy
sources.
• Consist of C, H, and O with the formula
(CH2O)n
Figure 2.8
Carbohydrates
• Oligosaccharides consist of 2 to 20
monosaccharides.
• Polysaccharides consist of tens or hundreds of
monosaccharides joined through dehydration
synthesis.
• Starch, glycogen, dextran, and cellulose are
polymers of glucose that are covalently bonded
differently.
• Chitin is a polymer of two sugars repeating many
times.
MONOSACCHARIDES
•
•
•
•
•
•
GLYCERALDHYDE 3 PHOSPHATE
ERYTHROSE 4 PHOSPHATE
RIBOSE 5 PHOSPHATE
GLUCOSE
FRUCTOSE
GALACTOSE
Carbohydrates
• Monosaccharides are simple sugars with 3 to 7
carbon atoms.
Figure 2.8
STRUCTURAL ISOMERS
• IDENTICAL MOLECULAR FORMULAS
• DIFFERENT STRUCTURES
Carbohydrates
• Disaccharides are formed when two
monosaccharides are joined in a dehydration
synthesis.
• The bond is a glycosidic bond
• Disaccharides can be broken down by
hydrolysis.
Figure 2.8
DISACCHARIDES
• MALTOSE—GLUCOSE + GLUCOSE
• SUCROSE—GLUCOSE + FRUCTOSE
• LACTOSE---GLUCOSE + GALACTOSE
POLYSACCHARIDES
•
•
•
•
STARCH
GLYCOGEN
CELLULOSE
CHITIN
STARCH
• STORAGE
MOLECULE IN
PLANTS
GLYCOGEN
• STORAGE
MOLECULE IN
ANIMALS
CELLULOSE
• MOST ABUNDANT CARBOHYDRATE
• PLANT
• ALGAE
CHITIN
• FUNGI CELL WALLS
• EXOSKELETON OF INSECTS
GLUCOSAMINE &
GALACTOSAMINE
• MODIFIED CARBOHYDRATES
• HYDROXIDE GROUP REPLACED BY
AMINE GROUP
LIPIDS
•
•
•
•
•
NEUTRAL FATS
PHOSPHOLIPIDS
STEROIDS
WAXES
TWICE AS MUCH ENERGY PER GRAM
THAN CARBOHYDRATES
Lipids
• ARE THE PRIMARY COMPONENTS OF
CELL MEMBRANES.
• CONSIST OF C, H, AND O.
• ARE NONPOLAR AND INSOLUBLE IN
WATER.
NEUTRAL FATS
• Called fats or triglycerides contain glycerol and
fatty acids; formed by dehydration synthesis.
Figure 2.9c
SATURATED VS
UNSATURATED FATS
TYPES OF NEUTRAL FATS
• MONOGLYCERIDE
• DIGLYCERIDE
• TRIGLYCERIDE
– COMMON STORAGE MOLECULE
PHOSPHOLIPIDS
• Contain C, H,
and O + P, N,
or S.
• Membranes
are made of
phospholipids
Figure 2.10a
Steroids
• Consist of four
carbon rings,
with an –OH
group attached
to one ring.
• Are part of
membranes.
Figure 2.11
PROTEINS
• ARE ESSENTIAL IN CELL STRUCTURE
AND FUNCTION.
• ENZYMES ARE PROTEINS THAT SPEED
CHEMICAL REACTIONS.
• TRANSPORTER PROTEINS MOVE
CHEMICALS ACROSS MEMBRANES.
• FLAGELLA ARE MADE OF PROTEINS.
• SOME BACTERIAL TOXINS ARE
PROTEINS.
Proteins
• Consist of subunits called amino acids.
Table 2.4.1
Proteins
Table 2.4.2
AMINO ACID STRUCTURE
• AMINE GROUP
• CARBOXYL
• REMAINDER OF THE MOLECULE
Amino Acids
• Exist in either
of two
stereoisomers,
D or L.
• L-forms are
most often
found in
nature.
Figure 2.13
PEPTIDE BONDING
• COVALENT
• DIPEPTIDES
• POLYPEPTIDES
Peptide Bonds
• Peptide bonds between amino acids are formed
by dehydration synthesis.
Figure 2.14
PEPTIDE BONDS
• Peptide bonds between amino acids are
broken by hydrolysis.
PROTEIN STRUCTURE
•
•
•
•
PRIMARY
SECONDARY
TERTIARY
QUATRENARY
PRIMARY STRUCTURE
• SEQUENCE OF AMINO ACIDS
SECONDARY STRUCTURE
• ALPHA HELIX
• BETA SHEET
TERTIARY STRUCTURE
• DETERMINES THE BIOLOGICAL
FUNCTION OF THE MOLECULE
QUATERNARY STRUCTURE
• COMBINES PROTEINS WITH TWO OR
MORE SUBUNITS
• The tertiary structure occurs when the helix
folds irregularly, forming disulfide bonds,
hydrogen bonds, and ionic bonds between
amino acids in the chain.
MODIFICATIONS OF
PROTEINS
• Conjugated proteins consist of amino acids
and other organic molecules:
• Glycoproteins
• Nucleoproteins
• Lipoproteins
CLASSIFICATION OF
PROTEINS BY FUNCTION
•
•
•
•
•
•
ENZYMES
STRUCTURAL PROTEINS
CONTRACTILE PROTEINS
HORMONES
TRANSPORT PROTEINS
DEFENSE PROTEINS
ENZMES
• MOST ENZYMES ARE PROTEINS
• CATALYSTS FOR CHEMICAL
REACTIONS
STRUCTURAL PROTEINS
•
•
•
•
PARTS OF CELLS AND TISSUES
COLLAGEN
ELASTIN
KERATIN
CONTRACTILE PROTEINS
• ACTIN
• MYOSIN
HORMONE
• INTERCELLULAR MESSENGERS
• INSULIN
• GROWTH HORMONE
TRANSPORT PROTEINS
• HEMOGLOBIN& MYOGLOBIN
• ALBUMIN
DEFENSE PROTEINS
• IMMNOGLOBULIN
• FIBRINOGEN
CLASSIFICATION OF
PROTEINS BY SOLUBILITY
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
GLOBULAR PROTEINS
FIBROUS PROTEINS
LIPOPROTEINS
GLYCOPROTEINS
NUCLEOPROTEINS
CHROMOPROTEINS
METALLOPROTEINS
GLOBULAR PROTEINS
• POLAR NATURE
• MOST NUMEROUS OF PROTEINS
– ENZYMES
– PLASMA PROTEINS
– CELL MEMBRANE PROTEINS
FIBROUS PROTEINS
• INSOLUBLE
• ELONGATE TO FORM STRONG FIBERS
• STRUCTURAL AND SUPPORTING
FIBERS
– ELASTIN, KERATIN, MYOSIN AND
FIBRIN
CLASSIFICATION BY
COMPOSITION
•
•
•
•
•
LIPOPROTEINS
GLYCOPROTEINS
NUCLEOPROTEINS
CHROMOPROTEINS
METALLOPROTEINS
LIPOPROTEINS
• CONTAIN FAT AND OTHER LIPIDS
GLYCOPROTEINS
• CONTAIN SUGARS
NUCLEOPROTEINS
• BOUND TO NUCLEIC ACIDS
CHROMOPROTEINS
• CONTAINS HEME GROUP
METALLOPROTEINS
• CONTAIN METAL IONS
NUCLEIC ACIDS
•
•
•
•
RNA = RIBONUCLEIC ACID
DNA = DEOXIRIBONUCLEIC ACID
DOUBLE HELIX
RESPONSIBLE FOR PROTEIN
SYNTHESIS
Nucleic Acids
• Consist of nucleotides.
• Nucleotides consist of a:
• Pentose
• Phosphate group
• Nitrogen-containing (purine or pyrimidine) base
Figure 2.16
DNA
• Has
deoxyribose
• Exists as a
double helix
• A hydrogen
bonds
with T
• C hydrogen
bonds
with G
Figure 2.16
THE NUCLEOTIDES
• PURINES
• DOUBLE RING
• PYRIMIDINE
• SINGLE RING
– ADENINE
– GUANINE
– GUANINE
– THYMINE
DNA STRUCTURE
• LINEAR STRANDS
• BONDS BETWEEN
SUGARS AND
PHOSPHATES
• DOUBLE HELIX
RNA
• Has ribose
• Is single-stranded
• A hydrogen bonds
with U
• C hydrogen bonds
with G
Figure 2.17
TYPES OF RNA
• mRNA –CODES FOR PROTEINS
• tRNA---CARRIES AMINO ACIDS
• Rrna---STRUCTURAL COMPONENT OF
RIBOSOMES
ATP
• Has ribose, adenine, and 3 phosphate groups
Figure 2.18
CYCLIC NUCLEOTIDES
• NUCLEOTIDE CONVERTED TO
CYCLIC FORM
– CYCLASES
• IMPORTANT IN SECOND MESSENGER
SYSTEMS
• REGULATING CELL FUNCTION
• cAMP & cGMP
DINUCLEOTIDES
• IMPORTANT FOR METABOLIC
PROCESS
• NICOTINAMIDE ADENINE
DINUCLEOTIDE –NAD+
– ELECTRON AND HYDROGEN DONOR
AND ACCEPTOR
– OXIDATION AND REDUCTIONS
ATP
• Is made by dehydration synthesis.
• Is broken by hydrolysis to liberate useful energy
for the cell.