Download Each element is abbreviated by a one or two letter symbol

BIOLOGY REVIEW
ELEMENTS
o EVERYTHING
is madeup of elements(livingand non-living)
t One of the simplestchemicalsubstances
o
Crn NOT be brokendown intosimplersubstances
o g0
"l"r"nts
occurnaturallvon Earth
by a oneor two lettersymbol
Eachelementis abbreviated
C reoresentsthe elementcarbon
Cl representsthe elementchlorine
Ca representsthe elementcalcium
ILEMINT
o/o OT TOTAL BODYWIIGI.IT
Oxy*on 6S.O
Cafbon t 8.6
Hydrogcn 9.7
N i t l o g tn
J.2
Calciurl l,B
PhoJphorus 1.0
Thgsefour elenrenrsnrakeilp
96.590of your boily ureight.
Elementsmake up more than 96 percentof the mass of a human
o carbon
. hydrogen
. oxygen
o nitrogen
Pot.ls\ium 0.4
Sot{iurn O.2
Chlorinc O.2
M a g n c s i u r l O .I
Sulfur O.O5
lron 0.03
lodine 0.03
TRACE ELEMENTS
.
.
.
Presentin living things in very small amounts
Play a vital role in maintaining healthycells in ALL organisms
Example:deficiencyin iodine = goitersin thyroid
ATOMS
Elements are made up of atoms
of that element
An atom is the smallestparticle of an elementthat hasthe characteristics
/ propertiesof elementsare determinedby the structure of their atoms
Characteristics
An introductionto organicchemistry. . .
o
A carbonatom
o
a
o
6 protons
6 electrons
for
4 electronsavailable
bondingin the outerenergylevel
Canbondwithothercarbon
atoms,as wellas many
otherelements
Forms4 covalentbondsin
orderto becomestable
ffi eiectron
#
l:rolott
neuiron
1,.,r.;:l
Carbonhas the abilityto combinewith otherelements,and form a vast arrayof chemical
structures
Carbonatomscan bond with other carbonatomsto form:
.
.
.
.
.
.
singlebonds
doublebonds
triplebonds
straightchains
branchedchains
rings
A carbonchaincan containup to 1000sof carbonatoms.
(an examplebeingproteins)
These largemoleculesare calledmacromolecules
ISOMBRS
Compounds
that havethe same simpleformulabut differin three-dimensional
structure
(ex. glucoseand fructose)
POLYMER
- a largemoleculeformedwhen manysmallermoleculesbondtogether,usuallyin longchains
CONDENSATION
- Smallmoleculeswith a -H and an -OH bond
together,The -H and -OH group are removed
(formH20).
- The subunitsare bonded by covalentbonds
HO-
1
-
2
-
3
*H
HO-
-H
,runlintod .onom,
6hort polym€.
t . .
"-t 'ro
oelryd.ation rearovgs 0 rater
I
nolFcula, ftrming a now band I
,|,
v
H o - : ' i l - . 2 : 3 - 4 - H
Longerpolymer
HYDROLYSIS
(rl Dohydailon rdclion in the rynthell6 ol e polytrer
The-H and-OH ions
A polymeris brokenapartby the additionof watermolecules.
polymer
(Ex:digestion
thatmakeup the
of food)
attachto the bondsbetweensubunits
cct0t\5{Iror..
{ a l r i r v ( 1 r 6 L o r )x y d l i r e $ }
puiyr'r€rise ciu!'le
CARBOHYDRATES
.
are used by the cell to storeand releaseenergy
.
are organiccompoundscomposedof carbon,hydrogen,and oxygen
MONOSACCHARIDE
.
a simplesugar,the simplesttype of carbohydrate
.
Commonexamplesare the isomersglucoseand fructose
DISACCHARIDE
.
a two-sugarcarbohydrate
.
moleculeslinktogether
formedwhen two monosaccharide
=
.
+
glucose
(combineby a condensationreaction)
fructose
EXAMPLE:Sucrose
POLYSACCHARIDES
.
subunits
composedof many monosaccharide
.
EXAMPLES. . . (thethree are polymersof glucose!)
- STARCH: Consistsof highlybranchedchainsof glucoseunitsand is
used as food storageby plants
- GLYCOGEN:Anotherglucosepolymersimilarto starchbut morehighly
branched
CELLULOSE:Formsthe cellwallsof plantsand givesplantsstructural
support
LIPIDS
.
Organiccompoundswith a largeproportionof C-H bonds
.
(muchless
An exampleof a lipidfoundin beeffat hasthe formulaCszHrroOo
oxygenthan carbohydrates)
.
Commonlycalledfats and oils
.
Insolublein water (moleculesare nonpolarand thereforenot attractedto water
molecules)
.
Used by cellsfor long-termenergystorage,insulation,and protectivecoatings
.
The major componentsof the membranesthat surroundall livingcells
SATURATEDFATS
.
Containfatty acid chainsof carbonwith only singlebonds
.
Generallysolid at roomtemperature
.
Example:butter
UN.SATURATEDFATS
.
Containfatty acid chainsof carbonwith doublebonds
.
Usuallyliquidat roomtemperature
.
Example:oliveoil
PROTEINS
.
largecomplexpolymerscomposedof carbon,hydrogen,nitrogen,and
sometimessulfur
.
essentialto all life
.
buildstructuresand carryout cell metabolism
.
buildingblocksof many structuralcomponents(hooves,hair,nails)
Proteinsare importantin . . .
. Musclecontraction
. Transporting
oxygenin the bloodstream
.
Providing
immunity
. carryingoutchemicalreactions
Enzym6chdges shap€
, i-_ruoo,","slight,y
,1-,,,,
as substrate binds
ENZYME- a proteinthatspeeds
upa chemical
reaction
) )
I..2'""'''"
.,
)
w-q @ "ffi
'qfriY"
Substrateentertno
aclNe5rteof enzyme
.
.
.
.
S'o'"'N
*1
f"
Enzymelsubstrate Enzyme/producle
comprex
complex
Products leilno
actve grte ot enzyme
A M I N OA C I D S
The basic buildingblocksof proteins
There are 20 differentkinds
They link togetherby condensation,
to form a peptide bond
The order of aminoacidsdeterminethe kind of protein
'-o-f'fu:-t-j{+,{
A m i n oa c i d l
\ffacid2
Amho group
(NH'
Contral €rbon atom. or alpha €rbon
There are 20 different R side chains
R1 o
H
..:r l' ll
i ,/'
ruN-c-cTi
_T-r",
nz
n
ln
P e p t i d eb o n d
N U C L E I CA C I D S
.
Store informationin cellsin the form of a code
.
Made up of subunitscallednucleotides
NUCLEOTIDES
.
Consistof carbon,hydrogen,oxygen,nitrogen,and
phosphorus
.
Basicbuildingblockof nucleicacids ) ) )
. Made up of a sugarmoleculebondedto a phosphate
groupand a nitrogenbase
\t.l_
1.*
ti'--r'
- r.' 1''*..N
rl
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GI
H
DNA
typesof nucleotides.
is a nucleicacid,madeup of 4 different
a
acid
deoxyribonucleic
)
)
)
information
code(instructions)
mastercopyof an organism's
passed
time
a celldivides
on
every
are
DNA'sinstructions
formsthe geneticcode
a
RNA
.
.
.
acid
ribonucleic
anotherimportantnucleicacid
workswith DNA to produceproteins
THE
CELL
- Eukaryotic
cellstructure
Plasmamembrane
. boundarybetweencell and external
environment
. controlsmovementof materialentering
etc.
and exitingthe cell (oxygen,nutrients,
products
water
and
excess
waste
enter
leave)
. flexibleand allowscellto vary its shapeif
needed
F i g u r e1
'
1-
Hydrophotrc
Reqloil
l,ltt0rrl
Prolbrrr
ffi*+Fhospho,,p,,
Fluid
MOSATC
*lembBne
Alo{el
How do things cross a cell membrane?
. some materialsenter and leavethroughproteinpassageways(passiveor active)
. Othermaterialspass directlythroughthe membrane(passive- diffusion)
*** Diffusionis the movementof moleculesfrom a regionin whichthey are highly
to a regionin which they are lessconcentrated
concentrated
Cellwall
.
externalboundaryoutsidethe plasmamembranein somecells
an additional
.
.
.
.
inflexible
relatively
muchthickerthanthe
plasmamembrane
andsome
foundin thecellsof plants,fungi,almostallbacteria,
protists
.
flotfoundin animalcells
.
in different
organisms
madeof differentsubstances
in plants(formsfibers. . . Thefiberin ourdiet)
Cellulose
N u c le u s
. theorganelle
cell
in a eukaryotic
cellfunctions
thatmanages
.
our DNA
contains
Figure1
\
/(-
\a/
t
\
t
Nuclearenvelope
. surrounds
the nucleus
. is fourlayersthick(2 doublelayers)
. haslargepores(materials
canpassbetweennucleusandthe restof the cell)
Chromatin
. Longstrandsof DNA
. Packsinto identifiablechromosomeswhen
cellsare dividing(reproducing))
Nucleolus
. A regionin the nucleus
. Producestiny cell particles(calledribosomes)that are involvedin protein
synthesis
Ribosomes
. The sitewherethe cell assemblesenzymesand other proteinsaccordingto the
directionsof the DNA
. Are cellorganelles
. Are NOT boundedby a membrane.
Cytoplasm
. Materialthat liesoutsidethe nucleusand surroundsthe organelles
. A clearfluid
. Usuallyconstitutes
a littlemorethan halfthe volumeof an animalcell
. Most importantchemicalreactionstake placehere
EndoDlasmic Reticulum
E.R.
. Endoplasmicreticulum
. A foldedmembrane,surroundedby cytoplasm)
. Has a largesurfacearea on which chemical
reactionscan take place.(A largesurfacearea can
be packedinto a small area by foldingthe surfaces
(thinktissuebox))
. The site of lipidsynthesisin the cell
. Thereare 2 types of endoplasmicreticulum. . .
R o u g hE . R .
. Coatedwith ribosomes
Smooth E.R.
. Area of the endoplasmicreticulumwithoutribosomes
Nuclrar
il!clear
Storagein the cell
Golgiapparatus
Golgi apparatus
v
. seriesof closely-packed,
flattenedmembranesacks
(lookslike a stackof pancakes)
. is a sort of sortingcenter
. receivesnew proteinsand lipidsfrom the E.R.
. distributes
proteinsand lipidsto the plasmamembrane
and othercellorganelles
. chemicallymodifiesthe proteinsit receives
. repackagesproteinsand sendsthem to theirfinal
in the cell
destination
Vacuole
\ * r
They travelin small
membrane-bound
transport packages (or
vesicles)
Anatomy of ihe PlantCell
. spacefor temporarystorageof materials
. sac of fluidsurrounded
by a membrane
. often storefood,enzymes,and other materials
neededby the cell
.Some storewasteproducts
.A plantcellhas a single
largevacuolethatstores
ter and othersubstances
Rough
J
i Endosld6ru(
Reliculilrn
Lysosomes
F i g u r eI
. Disassemble
things
. Containdigestiveenzymes
. Digestexcessor worn-outcell parts,food
particles,and invadingvirus and bacteria
Gytoskeleton
.
.
.
.
.
networkof thin,fibrouselements
providessupportfor organelles
dynamicand constantlychangingstructure
helpsmaintaincellshape(likepolesin a tent)
usuallycomposedof microtubulesand microfilaments
Microtubules
. thin,hollowcylindersmadeof protein
. act as trackson which organellesmovefrom placeto place
A)
Microfilaments
. thin,solidproteinfibers
. importantin musclecell contractionand in cell locomotion- the movemento f whole cellsfrom placeto place
Cilia
. short,numeroushair-likeprojectionsout of the plasmamembrane ) ) )
. tendto occurin a largenumberon a cell'ssurface
. have a coordinatedbeatingactivity
. organismsthat containmany cells have ciliathat movefluidsover a cell'ssurface,ratherthan movingthe cell itself
Ciliacan be found in windpipe.They beat and propelparticlesof dirt and mucustowards
the mouthand nose.wherethev are expelled
Flagella
. longerprojectionsthat movewith a whip-likemotion
. cellsthat haveflagellahaveonly one or two per cell
. in single-celled
organisms,ciliaAND flagellaare the majormeansof locomotion
Mitochondria
. organellesin whichfood moleculesare brokendown to releaseenergy
. havean outermembraneand a highly-folded
innermembrane(large
surfacearea in a smallspace)
. found in every cell except prokaryotes
(called
(called
Energy-storing
molecules
are produced
on theinner-folds
inner-folds
cristae)
Chloroplasts
. foundin plantcells
. the sitewhere lightenergyis convertedinto useablechemicalenergy
. storethe chemicalenergyin food molecules(sugarsand starches)
. containthe moleculechlorophyll
(trapsenergyfromsunlightand givesplantstheirgreencolor)
. belongto a group of plant organellescalledplastids,which are usedfor storage
;z-.-r,
{ Y , /
\y/
Chloroplasts
Pi.nt Cell ChlorooiaBt Stuctuao
Ouiar
M5n'u'r.s@ ";;
".,11fl^.*..ffi
Leilrel&
Thylakoid
* where
membranes
lightenergyis
trapped
,6
**|q3
Fioure 1
Stroma:the fluid
"o- *u1.,-T
thatsurrounds
the
granamembranes
lstact 0t thylakold$)
Chapter 9 - Homeostasis and the plasma membrane
ALL organismsare subjectto constantchangesin theirenvironment
Failureto adjustto changesin the environment
can meandeathfor an organism
iving cells
diustmaintaina balance
controlmaterialsthat enterand leave
of substancessuchas water,glucose,and other nutrients
must keeptheir internalconcentrations
must eliminatewastesas they are produced
lasma membrane
of materialsinsidea cell
the properconcentrations
maintains
maintainshomeostasis
controlsthe passageof materialsintoand out of the cell
to passthrough
allowsonlycertainparticles
Selectivepermeability
.
"theproperty
of a membrane
thatallowssomematerials
to passthroughwhilekeepingothersout"
. Allowsdifferent
cellsto carryon different
activities
withinthe sameorganism
Thechemical
is in your
: Onlynervecellsin yourbodymayrespond
to a certainchemical.
EXAMPLE
to it.Onlythemembranes
ofthe nervecellsadmitthechemical.
so allcellsareexposed
bloodstream,
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