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Learning Chapter 15 How the world creates who you are: behaviorism and social learning theory • 2 stimuli—events, things, or people—repeatedly experienced together will eventually come to elicit the same response – i.e. someone puffs air into your eye at the same time they ring a bellbell ring makes blink • Behaviors that are followed by pleasant outcomes tend to be repeated, and behaviors followed by unpleasant outcomes tend to be dropped – i.e. hard work rewardedmay work harder and hard work unappreciatedwhy bother? • Learning – the change of behavior as a function of experience – 2 types • Behaviorism • Social learning theory • Behaviorists try to show how people’s behavior is a direct result of their environment—esp. the rewards and punishments of the environment Behaviorism • The best angle to understand a person is from the outside – “we can only know that which we can see, and we can see everything we need to know” • Your personality is a sum total of everything you do. Nothing else • 2 beliefs 1. All knowledge worth having can only come from direct observation – Introspection is invalid b/c nobody else can verify it 2. The causes of behavior can be observed as directly as behavior itself, b/c these causes aren’t hidden in the mind, but can be seen in the individual’s environment Historical Perspective • Locke’s tabula rasa • Classical Conditioning – Pavlov’s dogs – Watson’s “Little Albert” • Stimulus generalization • Operant (aka “instrumental”) Conditioning – Thorndike’s cats • Shaping – Skinner’s Walden II • Schedules of reinforcement 1 Philosophical roots of behaviorism 1. Empiricism • • • • All knowledge comes from experience Experience is the direct product of reality itself Rationalism believes the exact opposite that the structure of the mind determines our experience of reality Tabula rasa or “blank slate” • • The newborn’s mind is empty and ready to be written on by experience (Locke) Watson’s quote at bottom of p. 443 Philosophical roots of behaviorism 3. Hedonism and utilitarianism • • Empiricism and associationism together form the core of the behaviorist explanation of personality Hedonism • • Philosophical roots of behaviorism 2. Associationism • Two things, or two ideas, or a thing and an idea, become mentally associated into one if they are repeatedly experienced close together in time • • i.e. thunder and lightning become associated in the mind The thought of one will conjure up the other, and the way a person reacts to one will tend to become the way they’ll react to the other 3 kinds of learning 1. Habituation 2. Classical conditioning 3. Operant conditioning Why people behave at all—motivation Utilitarianism • The best society is the social arrangement that creates the most happiness for the largest number of people 2 Habituation • Diminishing of response due to repetition • • • i.e. jump every time someone rings a bell behind you Simplest way behavior changes as a result of experience A response almost as strong as the original can be maintained, but only if the stimulus is changed or increased with every repetition (recovery) Classical conditioning • Learned helplessness – Feeling of unpredictability due to the experience of random reward or punishment, independent of what one does that leads to the belief that nothing ones does really matters”why bother” syndrome • S-R conception of personality • Watson and Pavlov assumed that the essential activity of life was to learn an array of responses to specific environment stimuli and the individual’s personality consists of their learned “S-R” (stimulus-response) associations Classical conditioning • Pavlov’s dogs – Bell elicited salivation most quickly and reliably if rung right before feeding rather than simultaneously with feeding • Associationism suggest that 2 things become combined in the mind by being experienced together, but Pavlov found that conditioning is more than simply pairing one stimulus with another, but teaching the animal that one stimulus (the bell) is a signal or the other (the food) • Concepts become associated not just b/c they occur close together in time and place, but b/c the meaning of one concept has changed the meaning of another – i.e. the bell used to be just a sound, but now it means “food is coming” Classical (Pavlovian) Conditioning • Not just salivating dogs… • Terminology – US – unconditioned stimulus • Stimulus that innately produces a response (does not require learning: e.g. grilling food – UR – unconditioned response (reflex) • Behavior that is triggered by the US: e.g. salivation • NS – neutral stimulus – Doesn’t produce a response (e.g. light, tone) • CS – conditioned stimulus – Pairings of a NS with a US leads to the formation of an association between the previously neutral stimulus and the US – NS becomes a CS and can produce a response on its own (conditioned response) 3 Classical conditioning: Pavlov’s dogs US (food) UR (salivation) pair with CS (tone) Classical conditioning US UR Meat Salivate US Meat CR (salivation) Classical conditioning: Dog phobia US (bitten by dog) UR (fear) UR + Tone Salivate CS CR Tone Salivate pair with CS (dog) CR (fear) 4 How to “cure” a dog phobia 1: Extinction NOT BITTEN How to “cure” a dog phobia 2: Systematic desensitization NO FEAR Think of dog FEAR!!! So…..… pair with Relaxation Response DOG NO FEAR pair with NO FEAR DOG NO FEAR RN1 How to “cure” unhealthy behaviors, 1: Aversion therapy for smoking Smoke Pleasure So…..… Put nauseating substance on tongue NAUSEA pair with Smoke cigarette NAUSEA 5 Slide 17 RN1 Which is US, CS, UR, and CR? Ronald Noble, 10/3/2003 Operant conditioning • Experimentation leads to things that work are repeated and things that don’t are dropped – i.e. a good cook experimenting • The Law of Effect: Thorndike – Put hungry cats into a “puzzle box” – They could only escape by doing some specific, simple act, such as pulling on a wire or pressing a bar – Doing this would result in the box opening and the cat would jump out to find some food nearby – The cat would be put back into the box to try again Techniques of operant conditioning: Skinner • Respondent conditioning – What is conditioned is a passive response that has no impact of its own • • – The animal learns to operate on its world to change it to the animal’s advantage • • A bar to press and a chute for delivering food pellets Pigeon would be bumping around and eventually pushes the bar resulting in a food pellet down the chute The pigeon eats it and continues with what it’s doing Eventually the pigeon catches on and hits the bar more often resulting in persistent hitting of the bar – – • Operant conditioning The animal learns to operate on its world to change it to the animal’s advantage 1. Start some behaviors (usually reward or give praise) 2. Maintain some behaviors (usually reward or give praise) 3. Prevent some behaviors (can still reward for something incompatible with the undesired behavior) Operant conditioning: punishment • – • Reinforcement – – – Operant conditioning – The animal learns to operate on its world to change it to the animal’s advantage 1. Start some behaviors 2. Maintain some behaviors 3. Prevent some behaviors • Punishment – Increasing the frequency or probability of a behavior by presenting or removing a stimulus following that behavior Positive reinforcement – • – i.e. press leverget food i.e. press levershock ends Decreasing the frequency or probability of a behavior by presenting or removing a stimulus following that behavior An aversive consequence that follows an act in order to stop it and prevent its repetition • Negative reinforcement • i.e. Thorndike’s cats who pushed the lever to open the cage to escape Skinner box used to work out the laws of operant conditioning using rats and pigeons – – Operant conditioning: reinforcement i.e. Pavlov’s dog salivating Operant conditioning • – Used by parents, teachers, and bosses Positive punishment i.e. climb pole to birdfeeder = shock (squirrels) Negative punishment • i.e. break rules = no cigarettes (prison inmates) 6 Operant conditioning summary • Reinforcement increases frequency of a behavior Positive (something added) – Positive reinforcement = by adding something nice – Negative reinforcement = by taking something nasty away • Don’t confuse negative reinforcement with punishment • Punishment decreases the frequency of a behavior – Positive punishment – Negative punishment Two-stage theory of phobias • Phobias are acquired by classical conditioning – Some neutral US is paired with a CS that produces fear • Phobias are maintained by operant conditioning – Each time the phobic object is removed or avoided negative reinforcement occurs – Because the phobic object is always avoided, the phobic never learns the object is harmless Negative (something removed) Reinforcement (behavior increases) Punishment (behavior decreases) Positive Reinforcement (R+): Something added increases behavior Positive Punishment (P+): Something added decreases behavior I.e. give star to child when makes bed; treat dog for sitting, praise I.e. get ticket for speeding, boss requiring redo of incorrectly done projectdone correctly in future Negative Reinforcement (R-): Something removed increases behavior Negative Punishment (P-): Something removed decreases behavior I.e. baby stops crying when mom feeds it, avoiding dog reduces fear I.e. child misbehaves and friend can’t come over or TV taken away How to punish 1. Availability of alternatives • Alternative response must be available—can’t be punished and should be rewarded 2. Behavioral and situational specificity • Be clear about exactly the behavior you’re punishing and the circumstances under which it will/won’t be punished • Never punish for being “bad,” but for the behavior 3. Timing and consistency • To be most effective, needs to be applied immediately after the behavior you want to prevent and every time it occurs 4. Conditioning secondary punishing stimuli • i.e. hissing spraying cat with water for clawing couchjust hissing • i.e. verbal warnings—”1, 2, 3…” 5. Avoiding mixed messages • Don’t cuddle after punishing—may lead to misbehaving for attention • Parents shouldn’t play off of each other with one punishing and the other providing sympathy 7 Dangers of punishment 1. Punishment arouses emotion • Unlikely to “learn a lesson” when under emotion 2. It is difficult to be consistent 3. It is difficult to gauge the severity of punishment • A slap or rebuke can be humiliating and cause more psychological distress than realized 4. Punishment teaches about power • Those being punished may focus on getting big and powerful to punish too 5. Punishment motivates concealment • Cuts off communication whereas an anticipation of being rewarded for good work motivates to bring work to the attention of the boss Dollard and Miller’s SLT • Habit hierarchy – The behavior you are most likely to perform at a given moment is at the top of your habit hierarchy – Your least likely behavior is at the bottom – The effect of rewards, punishments, and learning is to rearrange the habit hierarchy – If you are rewarded for a particular behavior, this behavior might become more likely; if you’re punished for a certain behavior, it might become less likely • Motivation and drives – Drive • A state of psychological tension that feels good when it’s reduced – Primary drives • Food, water, physical comfort, avoidance of physical pain, sexual gratification, etc. – Secondary drives • Love, prestige, money, and power • Also negative drives such as avoidance of fear and humiliation – There can be no reinforcement (and no behavior change) w/o some kind of drive reduction, whether it’s primary or secondary Social learning theory (SLT) • Important omissions of behaviorism 1. Ignores motivation, thought, and cognition 2. Classic behaviorism is based on animals • The hope is to be able to generalize general laws of learning relevant to all species, but not focusing on what’s unique to humans like problem solving 3. Ignores the social dimension of learning • • Rat in Skinner box is there alone and can’t interact with, learn from, or influence any other animal Humans learn by watching others 4. Treats the organism as passive • • They’re put there Humans choose what environments to enter and these environments change as a result of what we do in them Dollard and Miller’s SLT (cont.) • Frustration and aggression – Frustration-aggression hypothesis • The natural, biological reaction of any person to being blocked from a goal, or frustrated, will be an urge to lash out and injure • The more important the blocked goal, the greater the frustration, and the greater the aggressive impulse • The preferred target will be the source of the frustration or the aggressive impulse can be displaced elsewhere • Psychological conflict – Conflict between desire and fear and how it can change over time – Approach-avoidance conflict • 5 key assumptions 1. An increase in drive strength will increase the tendency to approach or avoid a goal 2. Whenever there are 2 competing responses, the stronger one (one w/ greater drive strength behind it) will sin out 3. The tendency to approach a positive goal increases the closer one is to the goal 4. The tendency to avoid a negative goal also increases the closer one is to the goal 5. Most important, tendency 4 is stronger than tendency 3 – The tendency to avoid a negative goal becomes stronger, w/ nearness/ than does the tendency to approach a positive goal • For a reward to be rewarding and have the power to make the behavior it rewards more likely, the reward must satisfy a need 8 15_5.jpg Rotter’s SLT • Expectancy value theory (like SFP) – – – • Expectancy and locus of control – – – – – – • Behavioral decisions are determined not just by the presence or size of reinforcements, but also by beliefs about what the results of behavior are likely to be Even if a reinforcement is very attractive, you’re not likely to pursue it if your chances of success seem slim Even something that isn’t particularly desirable might motivate behavior, if the chances of getting it are good enough An individual’s expectancy for a behavior is their belief, or subjective probability, about how likely they think the behavior is to attain its goal What are the chances? The expectancy is your belief about the odds that an action will pay off This belief could be right or wrong It doesn’t matter whether something is actually likely to succeed or not; if you think it will, you’ll try It doesn’t matter whether something will actually succeed if you only try, if you think it won’t work, you won’t even try 2 kinds of expectancies 1. Specific 2. General (locus of control) – – Bandura’s SLT • Less emphasis on stable differences between people as w/ Rotter, but rather on the social nature of learning and the way people interact with the situations in their lives • Efficacy expectations – Belief that one can accomplish something successfully • How one interprets reality matters more than reality itself – Rotter’s expectancy is the perceived conditional probability that if you do something, you’ll attain your goal – Bandura’s efficacy is the perceived nonconditional probability that you can do something in the first place • Observational learning (vicarious) – Learning a behavior by seeing someone else do it – “Bobo doll” studies • A child who watches an adult hit the doll is likely to later hit the doll themselves, especially if they see the adult rewarded for the aggressive behavior – modeling Internal locus of control are those w/ high generalized expectancies that think that what they do can affect what happens to them External locus of control are those w/ low generalized expectancies that think what they do won’t make much difference Bandura’s SLT (cont.) • Reciprocal determinism and the self – An analysis of how people can shape their own environments 1.You aren’t just placed in the environments in your life like a rat placed in a Skinner box— many times you choose the environments that influence you 2.The social situations in your life are changed, at least a little because you are there 3.A self system develops that has its own effects on behavior, independent of the environment 9 Bandura’s Triadic Model of Reciprocal Determinism Overt Behavior Environmental Influences Personal Factors (beliefs, expectations, self-perceptions) Contributions to the learning approaches 1. Conducted admirable programs of research that came close to achieving the dream of establishing psych as an objective science among other sciences 2. Recognize how what people do depends on the environment and the specific situation that they’re in at the time 3. The development of a technology of behavior change Limitations of the learning approaches 1. It’s not clear that the effects of behavioral therapies for phobias, addictions, and other problems are always generalizable and long-lasting 2. They’re too simple and underappreciate that people think 10