Download Chapter 6 Class Notes / Learning

GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY
Chapter 6
Learning
Defining Learning
Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience.
That is, learning can only be confirmed if there is an observable behavior change and will only
result from some type of interaction with the environment. There are, however, some conditions
that can produce an immediate behavior change not due to learning. Such factors include
illness/injury, lack of sleep, drugs and maturation.
There are three primary forms of learning with include (1) classical conditioning -- associative
learning, (2) operant conditioning -- learning through the consequences of behavior, and (3)
social learning/modeling -- learning through observing and imitating others.
Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is learning through the association of two stimuli -- one powerful, the other
neutral. The three key concepts defining classical conditioning include:
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CC is learning through association of the CS + UCS
No rewards or punishers are used to cause the behavior change
Responses in CC are elicited or are more involuntary in nature
Four Essential Elements of Classical Conditioning:
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A biologically powerful stimulus capable of producing a
significant response involving no learning (meat powder, electric shock, a love affair).
Unconditioned Response (UCR): An unlearned reaction to a UCS (salivation due to meat
powder, flinching due to shock, feelings of romance due to relationship). During conditioning, the
UCR is caused by the power of the UCS.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A (previously neutral) stimulus which comes to elicit a response as a
result of being paired with a UCS (metronome, flashlight, song). Before conditioning, the CS is
only capable of gaining the attention of the animal. After conditioning, the CS is capable of
producing a response virtually identical to that produced by the UCS.
Conditioned Response (CR): A response similar or identical to the UCR which has come to be
elicited by the CS (salivation due now to metronome, flinching due now to flashlight, romantic
feelings due now to song).
Phases of Classical Conditioning
Conditioning Phase:
CS (metronome) + UCS (meat powder) => UCR (salivation due to meat powder)
Test Phase:
CS (metronome) => CR (salivation to metronome only)
Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning is learning through the consequences of behavior. Operant conditioning
occurs when the consequences of some behavior lead to a change (increase/decrease) in the
frequency of the behavior. Our behaviors are continually being shaped through operant
conditioning as we naturally and spontaneously interact with our environments. Operant
conditioning techniques can also be directly applied to bring about a desirable change in the
behavior of a person or animal through the process of behavior modification.
The three key concepts defining operant conditioning include:
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OC is learning through the consequences of behavior
Rewards or punishers are used to cause the behavior change
Responses in OC are emitted or are more voluntary in nature
Four Types of Operant Conditioning:
Type of Conditioning
Positive Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement
Punishment
Extinction
Consequence
Receiving a positive
consequence
Behavior causes the stopping or
avoidance of a negative
consequence
Applying or receiving a negative
consequence
Removal or absence of a
positive consequence
Change in Behavior
Increase in the frequency of the
behavior
Increase in the frequency of the
behavior
Decrease in the frequency of
the behavior, or behavior stops
Behavior stops, or at least
decreases in frequency
Positive Reinforcement
Positive Reinforcement is learning in which the consequences of behavior lead to an increase in
the frequency of the behavior. Positive reinforcement may occur naturally in life, or may be
purposefully applied with the goal of increasing the frequency of positive, desirable behaviors, and
to reinforce decreased displays (zero rates) of negative behaviors.
Overall, positive reinforcement tends to take more time and effort and produces a more gradual
behavior change, but also tends to produce a more long lasting behavior change than other types
of operant conditioning (especially punishment).
Principles of Effective Positive Reinforcement:
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Timing: The reinforcer must be given as soon as possible after the appropriate response.
Consistency: If a reinforcer is promised for a certain response, it must be delivered.
Conversely, if the animal does not produce the appropriate response, the reinforcement should
not be given
Reinforcer Must Be Positive: We can never assume a reinforcer to be positive for all
persons. What is reinforcing for one person may be punishing for another.
Deprivation Facilitates Motivation: Subjects deprived of a certain reinforcer will work harder
to receive that reinforcer.
Satiation Inhibits Motivation: Subjects that get too much of a reinforcer may become full or
satiated on that reward. As a result, motivation to receive the reinforcer will be diminished.
This is truer of certain reinforcers such as food than it is of reinforcer such as money.
Schedules of Intermittent Positive Reinforcement:
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Fixed Ratio Schedule (FR): Occurs when reinforcement is given only after a set number of
responses have been made. Example: A factory worker receives $50 for every 100 pairs of
jeans he sews together.
Variable Ratio Schedule (VR): Occurs when reinforcement is given on the average of a
certain number of responses. Example: On the average of every 42 times a woman casts her
lure out into the lake, she catches a fish (sometimes 31, sometimes 55, but averaging 42).
Fixed Interval Schedule (FI): Occurs when reinforcement is given following the first response
made after a set period of time has elapsed. Example: A student must take a calculus exam
every three weeks gets a chance (only once every three weeks) to be reinforced for studying.
Responses tend to come toward the end of the interval.
Variable Interval Schedule (VI): Occurs when reinforcement is given on the average of a
constantly changing period of time. Example: A boss says "I will reinforce your work behavior
only if you are working when I check in on you. You'll never know for sure when I'm going to
check on you, but it will be on the average of every 60 minutes."
Negative Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement is learning in which reinforcement comes from the removal or avoidance
of a negative stimulus. NR rewards a behavior when that behavior causes something negative
to stop or prevents something negative from happening to begin with. Again, removing something
negative is like giving something positive. And behaviors that are reinforced tend to increase in
frequency. The two types of NR include:
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Escape Conditioning: Occurs when a behavior is rewarded because it causes something
negative (already happening) to stop. Example: An alarm clock starts ringing. "Turning alarm
off behavior" is rewarded because it causes the ringing to stop.
Avoidance Conditioning: Occurs when a behavior is rewarded because it prevents
something negative from happening to begin with. In avoidance conditioning, some form of
warning is always given so that the subject may do a behavior that will prevent the negative
event from happening to begin with. Example: A boss says to her employee "If you don't get
this project finished by four o'clock today, I'm going to dock your pay."
Punishment
Punishment is learning in which the consequences of behavior (negative) lead to a decrease in the
frequency of the behavior. For punishment to have occurred, a decrease in behavior must be
observed. However, punishment may also stop an inappropriate behavior. Punishment is effective
for bringing a relatively quick and easy, but more short-term behavior change.
Limitations and Dangers of Ineffective Punishment:
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Ineffective punishment may actually be positively reinforcing for a person/animal (as in the
case when the attention given serves as a positive reinforcer).
Punishment may also be reinforcing to the punisher. If you punish a child for whining (which
annoys you) and the child stops whining, your behavior is reinforced because it caused
something negative to stop (Negative Reinforcement -Escape Conditioning).
The pain of punishment may come to be associated with the punisher and not the
inappropriate behavior. This is especially true when the punishment is wildly excessive or is
unclear.
The generalized inhibiting effect may occur when the person/animal stops not only the
inappropriate behavior, but also all others associated with it. As the name implies, they
become generally inhibited and are afraid to do anything for fear that any behavior will get
result in punishment. Again, this is especially true when the punishment is wildly excessive or
is unclear.
Punishment only suppresses inappropriate behavior. That is, never assume that a
person/animal will know what is appropriate just because you have shown them (through
punishment) what is inappropriate.
In order to address the limitations and dangers of ineffective punishment noted above, it is
important to follow the guidelines listed below.
Guidelines for the effective use of punishment:
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Use the least painful method that is effective enough to get the job done. That is, don't over
punish (ineffective, generalized inhibiting effect, pain associated with punisher) or under punish
(ineffective).
Be sure to reward the appropriate behavior along with punishing the inappropriate behavior
(because punishment only suppresses inappropriate behavior).
Be very clear about what behavior is being punished. If the person/animal does not know why
it is being punished, the generalized inhibiting effect or pain associated with punisher will likely
occur.
Don't mix rewards and punishers too closely together. If you punish a child and then
immediately give her a treat to make her (and you) feel better, she will likely become confused.
Once you make a threat to punish, don't back out. If a child begs you to not punish and you
give in, you have rewarded begging behavior (which will likely increase).
Extinction
Extinction involves the process of unlearning a response by removing the reinforcer responsible for
the behavior. As the behaviorists have claimed, behaviors that are not reinforced will not continue.
Extinction is the reversal of positive reinforcement. That is, for extinction to occur, positive
reinforcement must have occurred to cause learning in the first place.
When the process of extinction begins, the behavior will often show an initial increase in frequency
before it begins to decrease and eventually stops. This initial increase in frequency is referred to
as the extinction spike.
After extinction of an operant response has occurred, there may be occasional reoccurrences of
the behavior noted as spontaneous recovery as the animal may test to see if the reinforcer is once
again available.
Extinction may also occur as the reversal of classical conditioning when the CS and UCS become
disassociated.
Behavior Shaping
Behavior Shaping is a specific operant process in which the behavior of a person/animal is
gradually sculpted into a model (or exemplary) behavior. Behavior shaping involves the step-bystep reinforcing of behavior. Examples include (1) how we learn to talk, (2) how we learn a certain
sport, (3) how a rat learns to bar press in a Skinner box.
Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination
Stimulus Generalization occurs when a person/animal generalizes one specific CS to any stimuli
vaguely like it. Example: Little Albert feared not only the white lab rat, but also any other white
furry thing (he generalized).
Stimulus Discrimination occurs when a person/animal distinguishes a specific CS from other
stimuli similar to it. Example: You get mugged and beaten in front of the Bijou Theater, later have
a fear reaction to the Bijou Theater but do not react the same way to any other theater (you
discriminated).
Note: The examples above apply to classical conditioning. Stimulus generalization and
discrimination may also occur in the process of operant conditioning.