Download Chapter 6 Types of Learning

Learning Goal One: Explain what
learning is.
Goal Two: Describe classical
conditioning.
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Search and rescue
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Provide assistance in disasters
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Intensive training using learning principles
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Recertified every two years based on
performance criteria
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A. Learning involves a relatively permanent change in
behavior.
B. Behaviorism is a theory of learning that involves
observable behavior. It does not include mental activity such
as thinking, wishing, and hoping.
C. Associative learning occurs when an association is made
between two events. Conditioning occurs when you have
learned about the association. There are two types of
conditioning: classical conditioning and operant
conditioning.
D. Observational learning occurs when an individual observes
and then imitates another individual’s behavior.
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Classical conditioning occurs when a neutral
stimulus is associated with a meaningful
stimulus and then acquires a similar response.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2c4_l2oe
22U
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Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, is a
pioneer in classical conditioning. He conducted
research looking at digestion in the body. He
discovered that dog’s salivated to more than
just meat powder being placed in their mouth.
The dogs salivated to the sight of the meat
powder, the individual that brought the meat
powder, and the sound of the door closing
when the meat powder arrived.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8OLdb9
Vh10E
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The dog’s behavior included both learned and
unlearned components. The unlearned
components are known as reflexes.
An unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is a stimulus that
brings about a response without any prior
learning.
An unconditioned response (UCR) is the unlearned
response to the UCS.
The conditioned stimulus (CS) is a neutral stimulus
that when associated with the UCS elicits a
conditioned response.
A conditioned response (CR) is the learned response
of the CS.
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a. Acquisition is the learning of the association
between the stimulus and the response.
b. The timing interval between the CS and UCS
determines the contiguity in time and space.
Conditioned responses are learned best when
the CS and UCS occur close together.
c. Not only must there be contiguity, but there
also must be contingency, which is the
predictability of the occurrence of one stimulus
from presence of another stimulus.
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a. Generalization occurs when a new stimulus
that is similar to the original stimulus elicits a
response that is similar to the CR.
b. Discrimination is learning to respond to
certain stimuli while not responding to others.
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a. When the UCS is taken away and no longer
associated with the CS, then extinction occurs.
Extinction is the weakening of the CR in the
absence of the UCS.
b. Spontaneous recovery occurs when the CR
returns after a time delay without any further
conditioning occurring.
c. Renewal refers to the recovery of the
conditioned response when the organism is
placed in a novel context.
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Explaining Fears
a.
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Classical conditioning provides an explanation for phobias,
which are described as irrational fears.
b. John Watson and his graduate student Rosalie Rayner
described phobias in an experiment involving an infant
named Albert. They brought a white rat into the room and
Albert was not afraid of the rat; he played with it. Later,
when Albert played with the white rat, Watson made a loud
noise behind Albert’s head and Albert began to cry out of
fear from the loud noise. The next time Watson and Rayner
brought the white rat into the room Albert started crying at
the sight of the white rat. He associated the white rat with
the previous loud noise that occurred the last time he was
playing with the white rat.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9hBfnXACsOI
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a. Therapists use counterconditioning, which
occurs when the CR is weakened because the
stimulus is associated with a new response that
is not compatible with the unwanted behavior.
b. Aversive conditioning is a form of treatment
that consists of repeated pairings of a stimulus
with a very unpleasant stimulus. To reduce
drinking, every time a person drinks an alcohol
beverage, he or she also consumes a mixture
that induces nausea.
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The principles of classical conditioning help us
to explain how the placebo effect works in
research on the immune system and the
endocrine system.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2qcrSm1
PxJU
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a. Even the human body’s internal organ system
can be classicaly conditioned. Research has found
evidence that suggests classical conditioning can
produce immunosuppression, a decrease in the
production of antibodies, which can lower a
person’s ability to fight a disease.
b. Similar results in the endocrine system have
been found that link the taking of placebo pills
with an increase in secretion of hormones that
were produced when patients had previously been
taking the actual drugs.
c. Stress also has an important role in the learned
associations between conditioned stimuli and
immune and endocrine functioning.
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A special type of classical conditioning is called
taste aversion, by which an individual learns an
association between a particular taste and nausea.
It is a special case because it only requires one
pairing of the neutral stimulus with the
conditioned response.
To combat this special type of learning, researchers
have designed specific medications with flavorful,
more appealing tastes to reduce the often negative
responses to these drugs. This way, the patient is
more likely to develop taste aversion to the flavor
and not to the medication itself.
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Many advertisers use classical conditioning by
associating something naturally good, which is
the UCS, with something neutral, which is the
CS. When these stimuli occur together the
neutral stimulus brings on the same response
as the naturally occurring response.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8JOmlH
oAWlY
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a. When drugs are taken at a certain time of day and in a certain
place, the body will react in anticipation of the upcoming drug
ingestion. Habituation refers to the decreased responsiveness to a
stimulus after repeated presentations.
b. This aspect of drug use has been found to play a role in death
caused by drug overdose. The drug user usually takes the drug in
a certain place, for example their bedroom. A CR is acquired to
this location. Because of classical conditioning, as soon as the drug
user enters the bedroom the person’s body begins to prepare for
the upcoming drug ingestion in order to lessen the effects of the
insult of the drug. But, let’s say the drug user is at a friend’s house
and they go into the friend’s bedroom to take the drug. The effect
of the drug is greater because there was no CR built up for the
friend’s bedroom and therefore, the body is not prepared for the
drug ingestion.
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Use Activity Handout 6.1: Identify the UCS, CS, UCR and CR
students choose a phobia and then search on the Internet for
information regarding that phobia. They should then write a
one to two page paper summarizing what they found in
their research. They should also ideas for
counterconditioning of their phobia.
Advertising: In a group, have students design an
advertisement using the principles of classical conditioning.
As an alternative, have the group of students recall a specific
advertisement and illustrate the principles of classical
conditioning for that advertisement in a short presentation.
To make this activity more interactive, have the group bring
in the item that the advertisement is for to use as a “prop”
during their presentation.
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B. F. Skinner developed what is known as
operant conditioning, which is a form of
associative learning where the consequences of
behavior produce changes in the probability of
a behavior’s occurrence.
1. Operant behaviors are voluntary and bring
about either rewards or punishments.
2. Just as in classical conditioning, contingency
is important in operant conditioning.
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E. L. Thorndike established the power of
consequences of an individual’s behavior. In
his historical experiment, he placed a hungry
cat inside a box. The cat could exit the box and
receive a reward of food if it could figure out
how to manipulate a string by pulling to lift a
door for escape. After many attempts, the cat
pulled the string and escaped. With subsequent
trials the cat increased its time of escape.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BDujDO
Lre-8
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The law of effect established by Thorndike states
that those behaviors followed by positive
outcomes will be strengthened and those
behaviors followed by negative outcomes will
be weakened.
Thorndike’s theory that a connection between
the stimulus and response is needed for an
individual to learn about the consequences of
their behavior is called the S-R theory.
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Skinner believed that the basic principles of
operant conditioning could be applied to all
species. During WWII, he carried out studies using
pigeons to guide missiles. He placed pigeons in the
warhead of the missile and the pigeon would peck
at a moving image on a screen and would receive a
food reward when it kept the designated target in
the center of the screen. The U.S. military never
used Skinner’s pigeon-guided missile concept.
Skinner wrote a novel called Walden Two where he
presented his ideas about a scientifically managed
society that could be fully operated through
operant conditioning.
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I_ctJqjlrHA
The term shaping refers to rewarding
approximations of a desired behavior. Each step
toward the desired behavior is rewarded until the
desired behavior occurs.
The concept of shaping can be used to examine
complex behaviors of service dogs.
Research indicates a connection between brain
activity and operant conditioning that helps us
determine which reinforcers are rewarding.
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Reinforcement occurs when a stimulus or an event
strengthens the probability of a behavior occurring
again.
Positive and Negative Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement occurs when something is
given as a reward to increases the likelihood
of the behavior occurring again.
Negative reinforcement occurs when something bad
is taken away to increase the likelihood of a
behavior occurring again.
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A special kind of response to negative
reinforcement is called avoidance learning. In
this case, the organism learns that by making a
particular response, a negative stimulus can be
altogether avoided. However, in some cases,
this can produce learned helplessness which
means that the organism has learned that it has
no control over negative outcomes.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q6pWdI
jAdn8
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Primary reinforcement involves reinforcers that
are biological in need, meaning they are
needed for survival. Some primary reinforcers
are food, water, sex, etc.
Secondary reinforcers gain their positive value
through experience. They are usually used to
gain access to primary reinforcers. Money is a
good example of a secondary reinforcer.
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Generalization
Generalization occurs when the same response is given to similar
stimuli.
Discrimination
Discrimination occurs when an individual responds to stimuli that
signal when a behavior will or will not be reinforced.
Extinction
Extinction occurs when a previously reinforced behavior is no
longer reinforced and therefore, the individual is less likely to
perform the behavior.
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Continuous reinforcement occurs when the behavior
is reinforced every time it occurs.
b. Partial reinforcement occurs when the behavior
gets reinforced only some of the time.
Schedules of reinforcement determine when a
behavior will be reinforced. A fixed-ratio schedule
reinforces a behavior after a set number of
behaviors. For example, if the schedule is a FR-5
schedule then the behavior will be rewarded after
it occurs five times.
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A variable-ratio schedule occurs when a behavior
is reinforced after an average of times it occurs,
but that average is unpredictable. A good
example of a variable-ratio schedule is slot
machines. The payout on the slot machines is
set, but the player doesn’t know when that is.
There will be a win, but it will occur at some
random number of plays.
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A fixed-interval schedule rewards the desired
behavior after a specific amount of time has
passed. An example of a fixed-interval
schedule is election time. Politicians beef up
their campaigns around election time and then
after they are elected they become more
relaxed until election time rolls around again.
Time is the key here.
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A variable-interval schedule occurs when the
desired behavior is rewarded after a varying
amount of time has passed. Pop quizzes are a
good example of variable-interval schedules
because the students do not know when the
quizzes will occur, but they do know there will
be a quiz at some point in time.
You never know when.
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Punishment decreases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again.
In the case of punishment, the behavior is weakened; therefore, it is not
the same as negative reinforcement.
Positive punishment occurs when something bad is given to decrease the
likelihood of a behavior occurring again.
Negative punishment occurs when something good is taken away to
decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring again. A time-out is a form
of negative punishment. In this situation, the child is removed from a
positive reinforcement situation.
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All too often parents turn to aversive stimuli
such as yelling or spanking to decrease an
unwanted behavior, but this generally does not
work.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y5EXnnJ
9VwM
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Immediate Reinforcement and Delayed Reinforcement
In operant conditioning the shorter the time span
between the behavior and reinforcer the better. It
works best if it is a few seconds. This is especially true
in lower intelligence animals. Humans, however, have
the ability to learn from delayed reinforcers.
Sometimes in life the decision comes down to whether
to receive a small, immediate reinforcer or wait for a
larger reinforcer.
Immediate punishment is more effective than delayed
punishment. Again. this is more the case with lower
animals than with humans.
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Sometimes the potential delayed consequences
are negative, but the immediate consequences
are difficult to override. Such is the case with
eating and obesity. Individuals know that
eating too much and gaining weight is a health
risk, but the immediate satisfaction of eating is
often too great to stop the overeating.
When the delayed consequences are punishing
but the immediate consequences are
reinforcers, the immediate ones usually win.
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Not all reinforcers are the same for all children.
Natural reinforcers for students such as praise and
privileges are usually recommended over candy or
stars. Activities are the most common reinforcers that
teachers use in the classroom.
The Premack principle states that a high-probability
activity can be used to reinforce a low-probability
activity. Probability means the likelihood of occurrence.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCgnOKpMvwA
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a. Also called, behavior modification, Applied Behavior
Analysis uses operant conditioning techniques to change
human behavior by analyzing and manipulating unwanted
behaviors through the enhanced use of rewards and
punishers.
b. If we can figure out what rewards and punishers are
controlling a person’s behavior, we can change them- and
impact the behavior itself.
c. Applied behavior analysis has a wide range of uses:
training autistic individuals, children and adolescents with
psychological problems, instruction of effective parenting,
and to enhance environmentally conscious behaviors.