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Bacterial physiology
The biochemical reactions that together enable bacteria to live,
grow, and reproduce. Strictly speaking, metabolism describes the total
chemical reactions that take place in a cell, while physiology describes
the role of metabolic reactions in the life processes of a bacterium.
Cell Metabolism
Cell metabolism is the total energy released and consumed by a cell.
Metabolism describes all of the chemical reaction that are happening in
the cell. Some reactions, called anabolic reactions, create’ needed
products. Other reactions, called catabolic reactions, break down
products. Your body is, performing both anabolic. and catabolic reactions
at the same time and around the clock, twenty four hours a day, to keep
your body alive and functioning. Even while you ‘sleep, your cells are
busy metabolizing.
• Catabolism: The energy releasing process in which a chemical or food
is used (broken down) by degradation or decomposition, into smaller
pieces.
• Anabolism: Anabolism is just the opposite of catabolism. In this
portion of metabolism, the cell consumes energy to produce larger
molecules via smaller ones. ATP is the currency of the cell.
Physical and chemical growth determinate
Main Requirements
Many food-poisoning bacteria have to multiply to high numbers in
food before they are likely to cause illness. The four main requirements
for bacterial growth are nutrition, moisture, warmth and time.
Nutritional Requirements
1-Basic nutritional requirements for growth :
a-Carbon - building blocks of cell components
b-Nitrogen - production of proteins, nucleic acids
c-Hydrogen - occur in organic compounds
d-Oxygen - involved in the production of energy
e-Minerals, Trace Elements - required in small
amount.
2-Special metabolites ( growth factors )
a-Substances required for growth that the cell
cannot produce using the basic requirements already listed
( Ex. : vitamins, amino acids, carbohydrates, blood factors )
b- Organisms may be described as being fastidious
Two types organisms based on source of nutrients :
1-Autotrophs - utilize inorganic compounds
( C - CO2, carbonates; N - NH4, N2, NO3 )
2-Heterotrophs - utilize organic compounds
( C - CHO, lipids; N - proteins )
a- Saprophytes - nonliving organic material
b- Parasites - viable (living) organic material
Moisture
Most foods naturally contain sufficient moisture to provide bacteria
with the water they need in order to grow. Where moisture has been
deliberately removed (e.g. in dehydrated foods such as milk powder, soup
mixes, etc.), then bacteria will not grow whilst the food remains dry, but
once water is added then bacterial growth may occur once more.
Warmth / Temperature
Bacteria have varying requirements in terms of the range of
temperatures in which they will grow. Those which grow at low
temperatures (usually below 20°C) are called psychrophiles and at high
temperatures (above 45°C) are thermophiles. Most pathogens are known
as mesophiles. They will grow at temperatures between 5°C and 63°C,
commonly referred to as the growth or 'danger' zone and have an
optimum temperature for growth of about 37°C.
Time
In ideal conditions (i.e. in moist foods at 37°C) bacteria will grow and
multiply by dividing into two every 20 minutes.
Other Factors Affecting Growth
pH Level
The acidity or alkalinity of foods will affect bacterial growth. Most
bacteria like neutral conditions (pH value of 7) .
Concentration of H+, OH- ions
1 ----------------------------------- 7 ------------------------------14
Acid
Neutral
Basic
.
Divided into four groups according to pH range :
.
*Neutrophiles - 5 to 8
*Alkalinophiles - 8 to 12
*Optimum pH 7.0 - 7.2
*Acidophiles - 0 to 5
Oxygen
Pathogens vary in their oxygen requirements. Those which require oxygen
are called aerobes, e.g. Bacillus cereus. Those which do not need oxygen
are called anaerobes, e.g. Clostridium perfringens .Those which will
grow or survive with or without oxygen are known as facultative
anaerobes and include Salmonella species and Staphylococcus aureus.
Microaerophilic - require the presence of small amounts of oxygen (2% 10%) .
Osmotic pressure
a- Exerted by solutes in water
b- Increase o.p. outside cell - water leaves cell
( very high o.p. - dehydrates cell )
c- Decreased o.p. outside cell - water enters cell
( very low o.p. - lysis of cell )
d- Halophiles - require the presence of 3% NaCl
( extreme halophiles - 20 to 30% NaCl )
LIGHT ( RADIATION )
1-Very small group photosynthetic bacteria (cyanobacteria)
- require UV light
2- Nonphotosynthetic bacteria (eubacteria) - UV light is lethal
(causes mutations)
Competition
Where there are a number of different bacteria present in food, they
compete for the same nutrients. Pathogens are often not as competitive as
spoilage bacteria and unless present in high numbers, will usually die.
Bacterial growth
Bacterial growth is the division of one bacterium into two daughter cells
in a process called binary fission. Providing no mutational event occurs
the resulting daughter cells are genetically identical to the original cell.
Bacterial Reproduction
1- Occurs by binary fission (simple division) .
Process
*Slight enlargement in cell size due to :
1-Increase in metabolic activities
2-Production of energy and cell parts
3-DNA replicates (duplicated)
4-Cell wall and membrane grow inward separating DNA
5-Divides contents of cell and DNA molecules
6-Two daughter cells formed
GENERATION TIME
Time required for one cell to produce two new cells.
A-Varies with type organism and environmental conditions.
B-Average 15 - 20 min. (varies - 10 minutes to 24 hrs.)
MEASUREMENT OF BACTERIAL GROWTH
1-Optical density
2-Plate count
3-Direct microscopic count
Phases of growth
In autecological studies, bacterial growth in batch culture can be modeled
with four different phases: lag phase (A), exponential or log phase (B),
stationary phase (C), and death phase (D).
Growth is shown as L = log(numbers) where numbers is the number of
colony forming units per ml, versus T (time.)
1. During lag phase, bacteria adapt themselves to growth conditions. It is
the period where the individual bacteria are maturing and not yet able
to divide. During the lag phase of the bacterial growth cycle, synthesis
of enzymes and other molecules occurs, no increase in number of
cells.
2. Exponential phase (sometimes called the log phase or the logarithmic
phase) is a period characterized by cell doubling. The number of new
bacteria appearing per unit time is proportional to the present
population. The slope of this line is the specific growth rate of the
organism, which is a measure of the number of divisions per cell per
unit time.
3. The "stationary phase" is due to a growth-limiting factor; this is mostly
depletion of a nutrient, and/or the formation of inhibitory products such
as organic acids. Rate of growth influenced by environmental factors.
Stationary Phase - rate of reproduction = rate of death. Due to exhaustion
of nutrients, accumulation of wastes.
4- At death phase, bacteria run out of nutrients and die. rate of death 
rate of reproduction.Some species die quickly, others survive longer.
Sporulation
The sporulation process begins when nutritional conditions become
unfavorable, near depletion of the nitrogen or carbon source (or both)
Many environmental bacteria are able to produce stable dormant, or
resting, forms as a branch of their life cycle to enhance their survival
under adverse conditions. Such dormant forms are called endospores,
cysts, or heterocysts (primarily seen in cyanobacteria), depending on the
method of spore formation, which differs between groups of bacteria.
Sporulation involves the production of many new structures, enzymes,
and metabolites along with the disappearance of many vegetative cell
components. These changes represent a true process of differentiation: A
series of genes whose products determine the formation and final
composition of the spore are activated.
Germination
The germination process occurs in three stages: activation, initiation, and
outgrowth:
Activation
Most endospores cannot germinate immediately after they have formed.
But they can germinate after they have rested for several days or are first
activated, in a nutritionally rich medium, by one or another agent that
damages the spore coat. Among the agents that can overcome spore
dormancy are heat, abrasion, acidity, and compounds containing free
sulfhydryl groups.
Initiation
Once activated, a spore will initiate germination if the environmental
conditions are favorable. Different species have evolved receptors that
recognize different effectors as signaling a rich medium: Thus, initiation
is triggered by L-alanine in one species and by adenosine in another.
Outgrowth
Degradation of the cortex and outer layers results in the emergence of a
new vegetative cell consisting of the spore protoplast with its surrounding
wall. Outgrowth requires a supply of all nutrients essential for cell
growth.