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Ch.15: Chromosome Mapping and Alterations of Chromosomes Linkage Mapping: Using Recombination Data Alfred Sturtevant, one of Morgan’s students, constructed a genetic map, an ordered list of the genetic loci along a particular chromosome Sturtevant predicted that the _____________ two genes are, the ________________ the probability that a ____________________ will occur between them, and therefore the higher the recombination frequency A linkage map is a genetic map of a chromosome based on _________________________________ Distances between genes can be expressed as map units; one map unit, or _______________, represents a _____ recombination frequency Map units indicate _______________________ and order, not precise locations of genes Sturtevant used recombination frequencies to make linkage maps of fruit fly genes Using methods like _____________________, geneticists can develop cytogenetic maps of chromosomes Cytogenetic maps indicate the positions of genes with respect to chromosomal features Sex-linked genes exhibit unique patterns of inheritance In humans and other animals, there is a chromosomal basis of sex determination An organism’s sex is an inherited phenotypic character determined by the presence or absence of certain chromosomes In humans and other mammals, there are two varieties of sex chromosomes, X and Y Other animals have different methods of sex determination Inheritance of Sex-Linked Genes The sex chromosomes have genes for many characters unrelated to sex A gene located on either sex chromosome is called a _____________________________ Sex-linked genes follow specific patterns of inheritance Some disorders caused by recessive alleles on the X chromosome in humans: o o Duchenne muscular dystrophy o In mammalian females, one of the two X chromosomes in each cell is randomly inactivated during embryonic development (_______________________) If a female is heterozygous for a particular gene located on the X chromosome, she will be a mosaic for that character (X chromosomes from both the father and the mother) Large-scale chromosomal alterations often lead to spontaneous abortions (miscarriages) or cause a variety of developmental disorders Abnormal Chromosome Number In _______________________, pairs of homologous chromosomes do not separate normally during meiosis As a result, one gamete receives ____ of the same type of chromosome, and another gamete receives no copy ____________________ results from the fertilization of gametes in which nondisjunction occurred Offspring with this condition have an _________________________ of a particular ______________________ A _________________ zygote has three copies of a particular chromosome A _____________________ zygote has only one copy of a particular chromosome _______________________ is a condition in which an organism has more than two complete sets of chromosomes Breakage of a chromosome can lead to four types of changes in chromosome structure: o ___________________removes a chromosomal segment o ___________________repeats a segment o ___________________ reverses a segment within a chromosome o ___________________ moves a segment from one chromosome to another Human Disorders Due to Chromosomal Alterations Alterations of chromosome number and structure are associated with some serious disorders Some types of aneuploidy appear to upset the genetic balance less than others, resulting in individuals surviving to birth and beyond These surviving individuals have a set of symptoms, or syndrome, characteristic of the type of aneuploidy Down syndrome is an aneuploid condition that results from three copies of chromosome 21(_______________________) It affects about one out of every 700 children born in the United States The frequency of Down syndrome increases with the age of the mother, a correlation that has not been explained Nondisjunction of sex chromosomes produces a variety of aneuploid conditions Klinefelter syndrome is the result of an extra chromosome in a male, producing ______ individuals The most common symptom is infertility. Other symptoms may include: o Abnormal body proportions (long legs, short trunk, shoulder equal to hip size) o Enlarged breasts (gynecomastia) o Sexual problems o Less than normal amount of pubic, armpit, and facial hair o Small, firm testicles o Small penis o Tall height _________________________, called Turner syndrome, produces ____ females, who are sterile; it is the only known viable monosomy in humans Possible symptoms in young infants include: o Swollen hands and feet o Wide and webbed neck A combination of the following symptoms may be seen in older females: o Absent or incomplete development at puberty, including sparse pubic hair and small breasts o Broad, flat chest shaped like a shield o Drooping eyelids o Dry eyes o Infertility o No periods (absent menstruation) o Short height o Vaginal dryness, can lead to painful intercourse Disorders Caused by Structurally Altered Chromosomes The cancerous cells in nearly all CML patients contain an abnormally small chromosome 22 and a long chromosome 9. Some inheritance patterns are exceptions to the standard chromosome theory There are two normal exceptions to Mendelian genetics One exception involves genes located in the nucleus, and the other exception involves genes located outside the nucleus For a few mammalian traits, the phenotype depends on which parent passed along the alleles for those traits Such variation in phenotype is called _________________________________ Genomic imprinting involves the _________________ of certain genes that are “_______________” with an imprint during gamete production Extranuclear genes are genes found in _______________________ in the cytoplasm The inheritance of traits controlled by extranuclear genes depends on the ___________________ because the zygote’s cytoplasm comes from the egg The first evidence of extranuclear genes came from studies on the inheritance of yellow or white patches on leaves of an otherwise green plant Some diseases affecting the muscular and nervous systems are caused by defects in mitochondrial genes, most of which come from the cytoplasm of the egg. These mitochondrial genes help make up the protein complex of the ETC and ATP synthase which leads to lower production of ATP. The nervous system is impacted greatly by the reduced amount of ATP. Leads to weakness, intolerance to exercise and muscle deterioration.