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Learning Objectives - Exam 3 Carbohydrates: Know the basic formula Know the difference between Mono- vs. Oligo- vs. Polysaccharides Understand that there are aldehydes and ketones Be able to recognize the well known sugars (aldoses = ribose, glucose, mannose, galactose and ketoses = fructose) Recognize epimers Realize that there are and anomers at carbon1 Be able to identify and define the anomeric carbon Understand how a glycosidic bond forms Be able to identify the reducing vs. nonreducing end of oligo- and polysaccharides Know the components of well-known disaccharides (lactose, sucrose) Know the basics of the well-known polysaccharides Storage = starch, glycogen Starch/glycogen made of amylose (14) and amylopectin (14 and 16) Structure = cellulose, chitin 14 linkages Why structural so rigid and storage are not? Related to 14 links vs. 14 links Why can’t humans live on grass (cellulose)? Metabolism: Six principles – name them and describe something about them (an example, etc.) Glycolysis - know ALL the details for the QUIZ, including net reaction, ATP/NAD used and made Know importance of phosphorylated intermediates What are the three nonequilibrium steps? How are each regulated? Hexokinase Phosphofructokinase-1 Pyruvate kinase Understand enzyme mechanisms Aldolase Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase Regulation of glycolysis What is flux? What limits it? What is homeostasis? What maintains homeostasis? By cellular energy charge By hormones By coordination with other pathways Citric acid cycle What is it? What does it do? Where does it occur? Know how pyruvate dehydrogenase complex works (cofactors involved, mechanism, regulation) Know net reaction Know where ATP, CO2, FADH2 and NADH are made Know ultimate # ATP formed Stereospecificity of aconitase, fumarase Know how -ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex works What is only membrane-bound enzyme? Regulation of citric acid cycle Oxidative phosphorylation What is it? Where does it occur? Chemiosmotic hypothesis – what is it? experimental support for it What are electron carriers? What proteins are they associated with? Inhibitors of oxidative phosphorylation Movement of electrons in Complexes I, II, III, IV ATP synthase Control & regulation Gluconeogenesis What three steps are different between glycolysis and gluconeogenesis? Understand mechanisms of important enzymes: Pyruvate carboxylase Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase Fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase Glucose 6-phosphatase (only in liver and kidney cells) Futile cycles Reciprocal regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis (F26BP, AMP, citrate, glucagon, insulin) Glycogen metabolism Breakdown Breakdown glycogen to produce glc because mobilized fast Understand mechanism and control of Glycogen phosphorylase (muscle vs. liver) Debranching enzyme Glucose 1-phosphate Synthesis Synthesize glycogen mostly in muscle and liver UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase (used to make activated form of glc - UDP-glucose) Glycogen synthase Glycogenin Branching enzyme Understand Reciprocal control of breakdown & synthesis (glucagon, epinephrine, insulin) Know the Phosphorylation/dephosphorylation of key enzymes Lipid metabolism Breakdown Know how fats metabolized by lipases (regulated step) Understand that hormones trigger mobilization of stored triacylglycerols Understand importance of "priming" fatty acid with CoA to make fatty acyl-CoA Transport fatty acid into mitochondria using carnitine acyltransferase (regulated step) -oxidation of fatty acids (breakdown) even # carbons - get acetyl CoA and FADH2 and NADH odd # carbons - get acetyl CoA and FADH2 and NADH + succinyl CoA double bonds - extra enzyme step to isomerize double bond Know how the process is regulated by: Acyltransferase as rate-limiting step Malonyl CoA (synthesis molecule) NADH Acetyl CoA Ketone bodies Why/when do these form? Acetone, acetoacetate, -hydroxybutyrate Lipid biosynthesis Know the classes of lipoproteins and the lipids they carry Know the committed step of synthesis - acetyl CoA carboxylase to make malonyl CoA Fatty acid synthase All enzyme activities on one enzyme Addition of malonyl CoA each time Uses NADPH Understand regulation of lipid metabolism by Committed steps Hormones Cholesterol synthesis Important enzyme = HMG CoA reductase (how regulated?) High cholesterol and heart disease Use of lovastatin Other metabolic pathways Pentose phosphate pathway Produces NADPH and ribose 5-phosphate - what are these used for? Amino acid metabolism Breakdown to get amino groups (nitrogen) Breakdown with HCl and proteases in stomach and intestines Urea cycle - way to excrete NH4 out of body Understand how the urea cycle is regulated Know what it means to be an essential vs. nonessential amino acids Know the enzyme cofactors used in AA metabolism tetrahydrofolate, S-Adenosylmethionine Know what it means to be a glucogenic vs. a ketogenic AA Genetic defects affecting AA metabolism- phenylketonuria Other roles of AAs Integration & Hormone regulation Use this note packet as a study/review tool Understand the organ specialization during metabolism Know the branchpoints in metabolism Understand all the ways that hormone control affects metabolism