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I. II. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. CHAPTER 7 STUDY GUIDE HOW WE STUDY CELLS a. Microscope: i. Developed by Anton van Leeuwenhoek o study cells. ii. Robert Hooke modified and advanced the microscopes and studied the cells in a cork. iii. Magnification: how much larger an object appears. iv. Resolution: how clear an object appears. v. Light microscopes: visible light is passed through the specimen and through glass lenses. Magnifies about 1000 times. Used to see live cells. vi. Electron microscope: focuses and electron beam through a specimen. Magnification of over 100,000x. 1. Transmission electron microscope (TEM): used to study interior of cells. The images are flat and 2dimensional. 2. Scanning electron microscope (SEM): used to study the fine details of cell structures. Uses stains with heavy metals (ex: gold) which kills cells. Images are 3-dimensional. 3. Phase contract microscopes: used to examine unstained living cells and cell growth in tissue culture. b. Other tools for studying cells: i. Cell fractionation: taking cells apart, separating major organelles so that their individual functions can be studied. Ultracentrifuges are used to spin the materials. The process begins with homogenization (disruption of cells) and centrifuging (separating the parts of the cells). (page 105) ii. Freeze fracture: used to study details of membrane structure. iii. Tissue culture: study properties of specific cells in a lab. COMPARING PROKARYOTES AND EUKARYOTES EUKARYOTIC PROKARYOTIC Founding kingdoms: protista, 1. Found in kingdom:monera fungi, plantae, and animalia. true nucleus, envelope 2. no true nucleus, envelope genetic material in nucleus 3. genetic material in nucleoid contains cytomplasm with 4. no membrane bound membrane bound organelles. organelle. multicellular 5. unicellular only in eukarya 6. only in archea and bacteria ribosomes are bigger 7. ribosomes are smaller cells size: 10-100 microns 8. cell size: 1-10 microns 9. metabolism is aerobic III. 9. metabolism is aerobic and anaerobic. STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE CELL a. The major theme of biology is “function dictates form and vice-versa. b. Nerve cell is the longest cell. It functions to send electrical impulses. c. A human body has 200 different types of cells with different function, therefore different forms. d. NUCLEUS: contains chromosome, which are wrapped with special proteins into a chromatin network. i. Surrounded by a nuclear envelope that contains pores to allow for the transport of molecules like RNA (mrna), which are too large to diffuse directly through the envelope. ii. It is well known as the “control center of the cell.” iii. Site for replication and transcription. iv. Nucleolus: site of ribosome synthesis. Produces 10,000 ribosomes per minute. Present in the nucleus of cell that is not going under mitosis. Not a membrane bound structure but a tangle of chromatin and unfinished ribosome precursors. e. RIBOSOMES: it is a cytoplasmic organelle which is the site for protein synthesis. (refer notes) f. ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM: (notes) g. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM: means a network with in the cytoplasm and used to carry and transport materials, the freeway of the cell. Has a network of tubules and sacs. i. Smooth er: connects rough err o the golgi apparatus. Contained a lot in liver cells. (notes) ii. Rough er: notes h. GOLGI APPARATUS: i. Def: notes ii. Function: package substances (proteins, lipids and other macromolecules) produced in rough er and secrete them to other cell parts or cell surface to export. The substances are modified by the addition of sugars and other molecules to form glycoproteins. Products are then sent to other parts of the cell in vesicles, directed by the particular changes made by the Golgi. The Golgi apparatus can be considered as a post office of the cell where packages get dropped off by customers, golgi adds the appropriate postage and zip code to make sure that the package reaches the proper destination of the cell. i. LYSOSOMES: i. Def: notes ii. Sacs of hydrolytic (digestive) enzymes surrounded by a single membrane. iii. “Stomach of the cell”, “Suicide sacs (example: cells of the tail of a tad pole, which are digested as the tadpole, which are digested as the tadpole changes into a frog)”. iv. Functions: notes j. MICROBODIES (notes) i. Peroxisomes: found in both plant and animal cells. Contains catalase, which converts hydrogen peroxide into water with the release of oxygen atoms also detoxify alchohol in liver cells. ii. Glyoxisomes: notes k. VACUOLES (notes) i. Large in plant cells but small in animal cells. l. ENERGY TRANSDUCERS: (notes) m. MITOCHONDRIA: notes i. “power plants of the cell” ii. site of cellular respiration iii. all cells have many mitochondria, very active cell could have 2,500 of them. iv. Also contains their own DNA and can self replicate.. n. CHLOROPLAST: notes IV. CYTOSKELETON (notes) a. Intermediate cells: constructed form a class of proteins called keratins. b. Microtubules: notes i. Aids in the structure of cilia, flagella, spindle fibers. ii. Cilia and flagella which move cells around consist of 9 pairs of microtubules organized around 2 singlet microtubules. iii. Spindle fibers help separate chromosomes during mitosis and meiosis and consist of microtubules organized into 9 triplets with no microtubules in the center. c. microfilaments: (actin filaments) i. functions: animal cells to form a cleavage furrow during cell division. ii. Amoeba to move by sending out pseudopods. iii. Skeletal muscle to contract as they slide along myosin filaments. V. CENTRIOLES, CENTROSOMES, AND THE MICROTUBULE ORGANIZING CENTERS. a. b. c. d. VI. VII. All lie outside the nuclear membrane Organize spindle fibers. Give rise to the spindle appearances required for cell division. Plant cells lack centrosomes but have microtubule organizing centers. PLANT CELL vs. ANIMAL CELL a. Plant cells have large vacuoles. b. Animal cells do not contain cell walls and chloroplast. Vacuoles are small. CELL SURFACE a. Cell wall: i. Def (notes) ii. Plants and algae have cell walls made of cellulose and fungi’s cell walls are made up of chitin. iii. Primary cell wall: immediately outside the plasma membrane. iv. Secondary cell wall: produced by some cells outside the primary cell walls. v. Middle lamella: thin gluey layer formed between the 2 new cells (when a plant cell divides) b. cell or plasma membrane: i. selectively permeable membrane that controls what enters and leaves the cell. ii. Glycocalyx: notes