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Shier, Butler, and Lewis: Hole’s Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11th ed.
Chapter 4: Cellular Metabolism
Chapter 4: Cellular Metabolism
I. Metabolic Processes
A. Introduction
1. Metabolism is ____________________________________________________
2. In metabolic reactions, the product of one reaction serves as _______________
__________________________________________________________________
3. This chapter explores how metabolic pathways _________________________
_________________________ and _____________________________________
4. Two types of metabolic reactions and pathways are ______________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. In anabolism, larger molecules are ___________________________________
6. In catabolism, larger molecules are ___________________________________
7. __________________________________________________ requires energy.
8. __________________________________________________ releases energy.
B. Anabolism
1. Anabolism provides _______________________________________________
2. Dehydration synthesis joins _________________________________________
to form ____________________________________________________________
3. When monosaccharides are joined____________________________________
and ____________________________________________________ are removed.
4. The H and OH react to produce ______________________________________
5. Glycerol and fatty acid molecules join by ______________________________
to form ____________________________________________________________
6. The result is _____________ water molecules and one ___________________
7. Dehydration synthesis also builds proteins by joining ____________________
8. The type of bond that holds amino acids together is a _____________________
9. A polypeptide is __________________________________________________
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C. Catabolism
1. Catabolism is ____________________________________________________
2. An example of catabolism is _____________________ , which can decompose
__________________________________________________________________
3. In hydrolysis, a water molecule is ____________________________________
4. The hydrolysis of a disaccharide results in _____________________________
5. When the bond between simple sugars break, water supplies _______________
__________________________________________________________________
6. Hydrolysis is the reverse of _________________________________________
7. Hydrolysis breaks down carbohydrates into ____________________________
8. Hydrolysis breaks down fats into _____________________________________
9. Hydrolysis breaks down proteins into _________________________________
10. Hydrolysis breaks down nucleic acids into ____________________________
II. Control of Metabolic Reactions
A. Enzyme Action
1. Metabolic reactions require ________________________ before they proceed.
2. Heat energy increases _____________________________________________
and _______________________________________________________________
3. The collisions of particles increase ___________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. Most enzymes are _______________ proteins that promote _______________
___________________ by lowering ____________________________________
5. Enzymes are needed in very small quantities because _____________________
__________________________________________________________________
6. Each enzyme is _______________, acting only a particular molecule,
which is called its ______________.
7. A substrate is ____________________________________________________
8. The substrate of catalase is _________________________________________
9. The ability of an enzyme to identify a substrate depends on ________________
__________________________________________________________________
10. Active sites are __________________________________________________
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11. The interaction of the enzyme-substrate complex causes _________________
__________________________________________________________________
12. The speed of enzyme-catalyzed reactions depends on ___________________
_______________________ and _______________________________________
13. Metabolic pathways are ___________________________________________
14. Enzyme names are often derived from _______________________________
with ______________________________________________________________
B. Regulation of Metabolic Pathways
1. The rate at which a metabolic pathway functions is often determined by ______
__________________________________________________________________
2. The number of molecules of a regulatory enzyme is ______________________
3. The product of a metabolic pathway my inhibit _________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. When the product inhibits the enzyme, this is an example of _______________
__________________________________________________________ feedback.
C. Cofactors and Coenzymes
1. A cofactor helps __________________________________________________
or helps ___________________________________________________________
2. Examples of cofactors include _______________________________________
3. Coenzymes are ___________________________________________________
4. Examples of coenzymes are _________________________________________
5. Vitamins are _____________________________________________________
D. Factors That Alter Enzymes
1. Almost all enzymes are ____________________________________________
2. Five factors that can denature enzymes are _____________________________
__________________________________________________________________
III. Energy for Metabolic Reactions
A. Introduction
1. Energy is _______________________________________________________
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2. Six forms of energy are ____________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. Energy can be changed from ________________________________________
4. All metabolic reactions involve ______________________________________
B. ATP Molecules
1. The three main parts of an ATP molecule are ___________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. The third phosphate of ATP is attached by a ____________________________
3. When the terminal phosphate bond of ATP is broken, ____________________
is released.
4. Energy from the breakdown of ATP powers ____________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. An ATP molecule that loses its terminal phosphate becomes _______________
6. ADP has _____________________________________________ phosphates.
7. ATP can be resynthesized from an ADP by the process called ______________
__________________________________________________________________
8. Without enough ATP, cells _________________________________________
C. Release of Chemical Energy
1. Most metabolic processes depend on ____________________________ energy.
2. Chemical energy is held in __________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. Chemical energy is released when ____________________________________
4. Burning a marshmallow over a fire releases chemical energy as ____________
and ______________________________________________________________ .
5. Cells “burn” glucose molecules in a process called_______________________
6. The energy released by oxidation of glucose is used ______________________
__________________________________________________________________
7. In cells, enzymes initiate oxidation by_________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
8. Cellular respiration is ______________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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IV. Cellular Respiration
A. Introduction
1. The three series of reactions of cellular respiration are ____________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. The products of cellular respiration are ________________________________
3. In cellular respiration some energy is lost as heat but almost half is captured
__________________________________________________________________
4. Aerobic reactions are different from anaerobic reactions in that _____________
__________________________________________________________________
5. For each glucose molecule that is decomposed by cellular respiration, _______
_______________________________________________________ are produced.
6. All but two ATPs are formed by _____________________________________
B. Glycolysis
1. Glycolysis is a series of ____________________________________________
that break down ________________________ into_________________________
2. Glycolysis occurs in _______________________________________________
3. Glycolysis is referred to as the ______________________ phase of respiration.
4. In the first main event of glycolysis, glucose is __________________________
5. The first main event of glycolysis requires _____________________________
6. In the second main event of glycolysis, ________________________________
is split into _________________________________________________________
7. In the third main event of glycolysis, the electron carrier __________________
is produced, _________________ is synthesized and two ____________________
result.
8. NADH delivers _____________________________ to ___________________
__________________________ where ________________________ is produced.
D. Anaerobic Reactions
1. Oxygen acts as __________________ at the end of the electron transport chain.
2. Under anaerobic conditions, the electron transport chain __________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. Under anaerobic conditions, pyruvic acid forms _________________________
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4. The build up of lactic acid inhibits ___________________________________
E. Aerobic Reactions
1. If oxygen is available, pyruvic acid can continue through ________ pathways.
2. The reactions of the aerobic pathways are ______________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. Three products of the aerobic pathways are ____________________________
4. For each pyruvic acid, enzymes in the mitochondria are used to generate three
products, __________________________________________________________
5. Acetic acid combines with _________________ to form __________________
6. The citric acid cycle begins when ____________________________________
to form ___________________________________________________________
7. In the cycle, citric acid is changed ____________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
8. The cycle repeats as long as _________________________________________
9. Three important consequences of the citric acid cycle are _________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
10. The electron transport chain is ______________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
11. The electron transport chain is located in _____________________________
12. The chain lowers _____________________________ and transfers energy to
__________________________________________________________________
13. ATP synthase uses energy to _______________________________________
14. At the end of the chain, hydrogen atoms and oxygen combine to form ______
__________________________________________________________________
15. Excess glucose in cells may enter ___________________________________
and be linked into ___________________________________________________
16. When blood glucose levels are high, the liver uses glucose to synthesize ____
__________________________________________________________________
17. When blood glucose levels are low, the liver releases ____________________
18. When a person takes in more carbohydrates than can be stored as glycogen,
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glucose is used to form _______________________________________________
V. Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis
A. Introduction
1. The information that instructs a cell to synthesize specific proteins is held in
__________________________________________________________________
2. The genetic code is________________________________________________
B. Genetic Information
1. ___________________are long molecules of DNA and associated proteins.
2. A gene is _______________________________________________________
3. All four groups of organic molecules require genetic instructions because ____
__________________________________________________________________
4. A genome is _____________________________________________________
5. __________________________________ are building blocks of nucleic acids.
6. Three parts of a nucleotide are _______________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
7. A DNA molecule consists of __________________________________ chains.
8. In DNA, bases of the first strand bind by ______________________________
to bases of the second strand.
9. The four bases found in DNA are ____________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
10. In DNA, adenine always binds with the base __________________________
11. In DNA, guanine always binds with the base __________________________
12. If the sequence of bases of one strand of DNA is G,A,C,T
, the bases of the complementary strand of DNA are ________________________
13. DNA twists to form a _____________________________________________
14. In the nucleus, DNA is wound around ________________________________
C. DNA Replication
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1. DNA replication is ________________________________________________
2. DNA replication occurs during ________________________ of the cell cycle.
3. As replication begins,______________________________________________
break between ______________________________________________________
4. New nucleotides pair with __________________________________________
5. DNA polymerase catalyzes _________________________________________
6. Each new DNA molecule is composed of one ____ strand and one ____ strand.
D. Genetic Code
1. Genetic information specifies _______________________________________
2. Each amino acid is represented in a DNA molecule by____________________
3. A triplet code consists of ___________________________________________
4. The genetic code is________________________________________________
5. RNA molecules function to _________________________________________
E. RNA Molecules
1. The sugar in RNA is ______________________________________________
2. RNA is ________________________________________________ stranded.
3. The four bases found in RNA are ____________________________________
4. In the synthesis of mRNA, RNA nucleotides form complementary base pairs
with a section of ____________________________________________________
5. The enzyme _______________________________ controls mRNA synthesis.
6. In mRNA synthesis, if the sequence of DNA bases is TACCCGAGG, the
complementary bases in the developing mRNA are _________________________
7. Synthesis of mRNA stops when RNA polymerase reaches _________________
__________________________________________________________________
8. Transcription is __________________________________________________
9. Codons are ______________________________________________________
10. To complete protein synthesis, mRNA leaves __________________________
and associates with __________________________________________________
11. Translation is ___________________________________________________
F. Protein Synthesis
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1. Transfer RNA functions to__________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. One end of a tRNA molecule contains ________________________________
and the other end contains_____________________________________________
3. An anticodon is __________________________________________________
4. The nucleotides of the anticodon bind to _______________________________
5. There are __________________________________________ of amino acids.
6. There are _________________________________________ codons possible.
7. Three codons provide a ______________________________________ signal.
8. A stop signal indicates _____________________________________________
9. More than one type of tRNA can correspond to the same __________________
__________________________________________________________________
10. The genetic code is degenerate because_______________________________
__________________________________________________________________
11. A ribosome is composed of ________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
12. The smaller subunit functions to ____________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
13. The larger subunit functions to _____________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
14. Chaperones function to ___________________________________________
15. The number of protein molecules a cell synthesizes is usually proportional to
__________________________________________________________________
16. Transcription factors control _______________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
VI. Changes in Genetic Information
A. Introduction
1. A mutation is ____________________________________________________
2. Some mutations can cause __________________________________________
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B. Nature of Mutations
1. Five ways mutations can occur are ___________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. Mutations may cause proteins to be ___________________________________
3. Repair enzymes are _______________________________________________
C. Effects of Mutations
1. Usually two or three codons specifying the same amino acid differ only in ____
__________________________________________________________________
2. A mutation that changes the third codon base can encode the same __________
__________________________________________________________________
3. If a mutation alters a base in the second position, the protein is usually _______
__________________________________________________________________
4. Another protection against mutation is that _____________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. Mutagens are ____________________________________________________
6. An inborn error of metabolism results from ____________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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