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Shier, Butler, and Lewis: Hole’s Human Anatomy and Physiology, 10 th ed. Chapter 4: Cellular Metabolism Chapter 4: Cellular Metabolism I. Metabolic Processes A. Introduction 1. Metabolism is ____________________________________________________ 2. In metabolic reactions, the product of one reaction serves as _______________ __________________________________________________________________ 3. This chapter explores how metabolic pathways _________________________ _________________________ and _____________________________________ 4. Two types of metabolic reactions and pathways are ______________________ __________________________________________________________________ 5. In anabolism, larger molecules are ___________________________________ 6. In catabolism, larger molecules are ___________________________________ 7. __________________________________________________ requires energy. 8. __________________________________________________ releases energy. B. Anabolism 1. Anabolism provides _______________________________________________ 2. Dehydration synthesis joins _________________________________________ to form ____________________________________________________________ 3. When monosaccharides are joined____________________________________ and ____________________________________________________ are removed. 4. The H and OH react to produce ______________________________________ 5. Glycerol and fatty acid molecules join by ______________________________ to form ____________________________________________________________ 6. The result is _____________ water molecules and one ___________________ 7. Dehydration synthesis also builds proteins by joining ____________________ 8. The type of bond that holds amino acids together is a _____________________ 9. A polypeptide is __________________________________________________ 4-1 C. Catabolism 1. Catabolism is ____________________________________________________ 2. An example of catabolism is _____________________ , which can decompose __________________________________________________________________ 3. In hydrolysis, a water molecule is ____________________________________ 4. The hydrolysis of a disaccharide results in _____________________________ 5. When the bond between simple sugars break, water supplies _______________ __________________________________________________________________ 6. Hydrolysis is the reverse of _________________________________________ 7. Hydrolysis breaks down carbohydrates into ____________________________ 8. Hydrolysis breaks down fats into _____________________________________ 9. Hydrolysis breaks down proteins into _________________________________ 10. Hydrolysis breaks down nucleic acids into ____________________________ II. Control of Metabolic Reactions A. Enzyme Action 1. Metabolic reactions require ________________________ before they proceed. 2. Heat energy increases _____________________________________________ and _______________________________________________________________ 3. The collisions of particles increase ___________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 4. Enzymes are _______________ proteins that promote ____________________ ___________________ by lowering ____________________________________ 5. Enzymes are needed in very small quantities because _____________________ __________________________________________________________________ 6. Enzyme specificity is ______________________________________________ 7. A substrate is ____________________________________________________ 8. The substrate of catalase is _________________________________________ 9. The ability of an enzyme to identify a substrate depends on ________________ __________________________________________________________________ 10. Active sites are __________________________________________________ 4-2 11. The interaction of the enzyme-substrate complex causes _________________ __________________________________________________________________ 12. The speed of enzyme-catalyzed reactions depends on ___________________ _______________________ and _______________________________________ 13. Metabolic pathways are ___________________________________________ 14. Enzyme names are often derived from _______________________________ with ______________________________________________________________ B. Cofactors and Coenzymes 1. A cofactor helps __________________________________________________ 2. Examples of cofactors include _______________________________________ 3. Coenzymes are ___________________________________________________ 4. Examples of coenzymes are _________________________________________ 5. Vitamins are _____________________________________________________ C. Factors That Alter Enzymes 1. Almost all enzymes are ____________________________________________ 2. Five factors that can denature enzymes are _____________________________ __________________________________________________________________ III. Energy for Metabolic Reactions A. Introduction 1. Energy is _______________________________________________________ 2. Six forms of energy are ____________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 3. Energy can be changed from ________________________________________ 4. All metabolic reactions involve ______________________________________ B. Release of Chemical Energy 1. Most metabolic processes depend on ____________________________ energy. 2. Chemical energy is held in __________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 3. Chemical energy is released when ____________________________________ 4. Burning a marshmallow over a fire releases chemical energy as ____________ and ______________________________________________________________ . 4-3 5. Cells “burn” glucose molecules in a process called_______________________ 6. The energy released by oxidation of glucose is used ______________________ __________________________________________________________________ 7. In cells, enzymes initiate oxidation by_________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 8. Cellular respiration is ______________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ IV. Cellular Respiration A. Introduction 1. The three series of reactions of cellular respiration are ____________________ __________________________________________________________________ 2. The products of cellular respiration are ________________________________ 3. In cellular respiration some energy is lost as heat but almost half is captured __________________________________________________________________ 4. Aerobic reactions are different from anaerobic reactions in that _____________ __________________________________________________________________ 5. For each glucose molecule that is decomposed by cellular respiration, _______ _______________________________________________________ are produced. 6. All but two ATPs are formed by _____________________________________ B. ATP Molecules 1. The three main parts of an ATP molecule are ___________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 2. The third phosphate of ATP is attached by a ____________________________ 3. When the terminal phosphate bond of ATP is broken, ____________________ is released. 4. Energy from the breakdown of ATP powers ____________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 5. An ATP molecule that loses its terminal phosphate becomes _______________ 6. ADP has _____________________________________________ phosphates. 7. ATP can be resynthesized from an ADP by the process called ______________ __________________________________________________________________ 4-4 8. Without enough ATP, cells _________________________________________ C. Glycolysis 1. Glycolysis is a series of ____________________________________________ that break down ________________________ into_________________________ 2. Glycolysis occurs in _______________________________________________ 3. Glycolysis is referred to as the ______________________ phase of respiration. 4. In the first main event of glycolysis, glucose is __________________________ 5. The first main event of glycolysis requires _____________________________ 6. In the second main event of glycolysis, ________________________________ is split into _________________________________________________________ 7. In the third main event of glycolysis, the electron carrier __________________ is produced, _________________ is synthesized and two ____________________ result. 8. NADH delivers _____________________________ to ___________________ __________________________ where ________________________ is produced. D. Anaerobic Reactions 1. Oxygen acts as __________________ at the end of the electron transport chain. 2. Under anaerobic conditions, the electron transport chain __________________ __________________________________________________________________ 3. Under anaerobic conditions, pyruvic acid forms _________________________ 4. The build up of lactic acid inhibits ___________________________________ E. Aerobic Reactions 1. If oxygen is available, pyruvic acid can continue through ________ pathways. 2. The three series of reactions of the aerobic pathways are __________________ __________________________________________________________________ 3. Three products of the aerobic pathways are ____________________________ 4. In mitochondria, three products pyruvic acid is used to generate are _________ __________________________________________________________________ 5. Acetic acid combines with _________+________ to form _________________ 6. The citric acid cycle begins when ____________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 4-5 7. In the cycle, citric acid is changed ____________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 8. The cycle repeats as long as _________________________________________ 9. Three important consequences of the citric acid cycle are _________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 10. The electron transport chain is ______________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 11. The electron transport chain is located in _____________________________ 12. The chain lowers _____________________________ and transfers energy to __________________________________________________________________ 13. ATP synthase uses energy to _______________________________________ 14. At the end of the chain, hydrogen atoms and oxygen combine to form ______ __________________________________________________________________ 15. Excess glucose in cells may enter ___________________________________ and be linked into ___________________________________________________ 16. When blood glucose levels are high, the liver uses glucose to synthesize ____ __________________________________________________________________ 17. When blood glucose levels are low, the liver releases____________________ 18. When a person takes in more carbohydrates than can be stored as glycogen, glucose is used to form _______________________________________________ F. Regulation of Metabolic Pathways 1. The rate at which a metabolic pathway functions is often determined by ______ __________________________________________________________________ 2. The number of regulatory enzymes is _________________________________ 3. The product of a metabolic pathway my inhibit _________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 4. When the product inhibits the enzyme, this is an example of _______________ __________________________________________________________ feedback. 4-6 V. Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis A. Introduction 1. The information that instructs a cell to synthesize specific proteins is held in __________________________________________________________________ 2. The genetic code is________________________________________________ B. Genetic Information 1. Cell structures that carry DNA are____________________________________ 2. A gene is _______________________________________________________ 3. All four groups of organic molecules require genetic instructions because ____ __________________________________________________________________ 4. A genome is _____________________________________________________ 5. __________________________________ are building blocks of nucleic acids. 6. Three parts of a nucleotide are _______________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 7. A DNA molecule consists of __________________________________ chains. 8. In DNA, bases of the first strand bind by ______________________________ to bases of the second strand. 9. The four bases found in DNA are ____________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 10. In DNA, adenine always binds with the base __________________________ 11. In DNA, guanine always binds with the base __________________________ 12. If the sequence of bases of one strand of DNA is G,A,C,T, the bases of the complementary strand of DNA are ______________________________________ 13. DNA twists to form a _____________________________________________ 14. In the nucleus, DNA is wound around ________________________________ C. Genetic Code 1. Genetic information specifies _______________________________________ 2. Each amino acid is represented in a DNA molecule by____________________ 3. A triplet code consists of ___________________________________________ 4-7 4. The sequence of nucleotides in a DNA molecule dictates __________________ __________________________________________________________________ 5. The genetic code is________________________________________________ 6. RNA molecules function to _________________________________________ D. RNA Molecules 1. The sugar in RNA is ______________________________________________ 2. RNA is ________________________________________________ stranded. 3. The four bases found in RNA are ____________________________________ 4. In the synthesis of mRNA, RNA nucleotides form complementary base pairs with a section of ____________________________________________________ 5. The enzyme _______________________________ controls mRNA synthesis. 6. In mRNA synthesis, if the sequence of DNA bases is TACCCGAGG, the complementary bases in the developing mRNA are _________________________ 7. Synthesis of mRNA stops when RNA polymerase reaches _________________ __________________________________________________________________ 8. Transcription is __________________________________________________ 9. Codons are ______________________________________________________ 10. To complete protein synthesis, mRNA leaves __________________________ and associates with __________________________________________________ 11. Translation is ___________________________________________________ E. Protein Synthesis 1. A gene that is ____________________________________________________ and ___________________________________________ , is said to be expressed. 2. The proteins that result determine ____________________________________ 3. Transfer RNA functions to__________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 4. One end of a tRNA molecule contains ________________________________ and the other end contains_____________________________________________ 5. An anticodon is __________________________________________________ 6. The nucleotides of the anticodon bind to _______________________________ 7. There are __________________________________________ of amino acids. 4-8 8. There are _________________________________________ codons possible. 9. Three codons provide a ______________________________________ signal. 10. A stop signal indicates ____________________________________________ 11. More than one type of tRNA can correspond to the same _________________ __________________________________________________________________ 12. The genetic code is degenerate because_______________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 13. A ribosome is composed of ________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 14. The smaller subunit functions to ____________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 15. The larger subunit functions to _____________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 16. Chaperones function to ___________________________________________ 17. The number of protein molecules a cell synthesizes is usually proportional to __________________________________________________________________ 18. Transcription factors control _______________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ F. DNA Replication 1. DNA replication is ________________________________________________ 2. DNA replication occurs during ________________________ of the cell cycle. 3. As replication begins,______________________________________________ break between ______________________________________________________ 4. New nucleotides pair with __________________________________________ 5. DNA polymerase catalyzes _________________________________________ 6. Each new DNA molecule is composed of one ____ strand and one ____ strand. VI. Changes in Genetic Information A. Introduction 1. A mutation is ____________________________________________________ 2. Some mutations can cause __________________________________________ 4-9 B. Nature of Mutations 1. Five ways mutations can occur are ___________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 2. Mutations may cause proteins to be ___________________________________ 3. Repair enzymes are _______________________________________________ C. Effects of Mutations 1. Usually two or three codons specifying the same amino acid differ only in ____ __________________________________________________________________ 2. A mutation that changes the third codon base can encode the same __________ __________________________________________________________________ 3. If a mutation alters a base in the second position, the protein is usually _______ __________________________________________________________________ 4. Another protection against mutation is that _____________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 5. Mutagens are ____________________________________________________ 6. An inborn error of metabolism results from ____________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 4-10