Download Toast: climate change and the Right to Food May 2015

May 2015
Toast: climate change and the Right
to Food
How climate change undermines everyone’s right to food, the key role agriculture
plays in driving climate change and what needs to happen at the United Nations
climate talks in Paris 2015 and beyond.
Introduction
Food and water are basic requirements for human life, but climate change is threatening
these vital resources. People in some parts of the world are already facing severe
challenges in producing food under changing conditions; extreme weather events, rising
temperatures, drought and rising sea levels are damaging harvests and reducing food
supplies. Models suggest these impacts are likely to become increasingly severe as
temperatures and climate instability increase.
Agriculture is also a cause of climate change. Current chemical-intensive and large-scale
farming practices, and growing demand for land, are a significant source of greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions, with agriculture, forestry and associated land uses together estimated to
contribute 18% of global man-made emissions.1
This briefing describes some of the key ways in which changes in our climate are
threatening food supplies. It looks at some of the ways in which our use of land for
agriculture exacerbates the problem. It concludes by urging government and international
action on an ambitious climate change deal that protects the fundamental human right to
food.
The right to food and climate change
Food and water are basic requirements for everyone. The international community has
attempted to recognize and protect the right to adequate food through various legal
agreements, including most prominently the International Covenant on Economic, Social,
and Cultural Rights (see Box).
For more than 40 years we’ve seen that the wellbeing of people and planet go hand in hand – and it’s been the
inspiration for our campaigns. Together with thousands of people like you we’ve secured safer food and water,
defended wildlife and natural habitats, championed the move to clean energy and acted to keep our climate
stable. Be a Friend of the Earth – see things differently.
1
Climate change and the Right to Food
Yet despite legal recognition at the international level of the human right to adequate food,
one in seven people in the world do not have adequate access to food and some 6 million
children die of starvation or related causes every year.2 An estimated 900 million people are
undernourished.3 And as a further indicator of a dysfunctional food system, 1.4 billion adults
across the world are overweight and 3.4 million adults die each year as a result of being
overweight or obese.4
The right to food in UN agreements
Article 11 of the UN International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural rights states that:
1. The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize the right of everyone to an adequate
standard of living for himself and his family, including adequate food, clothing and housing, and
to the continuous improvement of living conditions. The States Parties will take appropriate steps
to ensure the realization of this right, recognizing to this effect the essential importance of international
co-operation based on free consent.
2. The States Parties to the present Covenant, recognizing the fundamental right of everyone to be
free from hunger, shall take, individually and through international co-operation, the measures,
including specific programmes”
Additionally United Nations Guidelines state that “The right to adequate food is realized when every
man, woman and child, alone or in community with others, have physical and economic access at all
times to adequate food or means for its procurement. .”.5
Olivier de Schutter served as the United Nations Special Rapporteur on the right to food from 2008 to
2014 and defined the Right to Food as “the right to have regular, permanent and unrestricted access,
either directly or by means of financial purchases, to quantitatively and qualitatively adequate and
sufficient food corresponding to the cultural traditions of the people to which the consumer belongs, and
which ensure a physical and mental, individual and collective, fulfilling and dignified life free of fear.”6
We have enough food but fail to use and protect it
We grow enough food right now to feed about 10 billion people7, and certainly enough food
globally to feed the world’s population. Yet it is extremely unevenly distributed. Social and
economic inequities prevent many people accessing a nutritionally balanced diet.8 Currently,
36% of the calories produced by the world's crops are being used for animal feed, and only
12% of those feed calories ultimately contribute to the human diet (as meat and other animal
products).9
Additionally, human-edible calories used for biofuel production quadrupled from 2000 to
2010, from 1% to 4%. And we also lose up to a third of crops post-harvest – either spoiled in
transit or thrown away by consumers in richer countries.10 Our food system is already failing
the poorest and most vulnerable. Scientists warn that climate trends are now affecting11 the
abundance and distribution of harvested aquatic species, both freshwater and marine, and
aquaculture production systems.
As climate change worsens its impacts on food, pastoral, and fishing systems, it will
exacerbate food insecurity. In March this year the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) predicted up to 2% yield loss in farming per decade12 - “local temperature
increases in excess of about 1°C above pre-industrial is projected to have negative effects
on yields for the major crops (wheat, rice and maize) in both tropical and temperate
regions”.13 We are already about 0.85 °C above pre-industrial levels.
2
Climate change and the Right to Food
Climate impacts on food supplies
Climate change is already affecting food supplies, including yields of staple crops such as
wheat, soy, maize and rice. The IPCC extensive reviews confirm that negative impacts of
climate change on these crop yields have been more common than positive impacts. 14
Impacts associated with on-going climate change, including rising temperatures, heat waves,
droughts, floods, sea level rise, and salinization of land and aquifers will all contribute to
further reducing food production, with Africa and Asia particularly affected. By 2050, climate
change could cause irrigated wheat yields in developing countries to drop by 13%, and
irrigated rice could fall by 15%. In Africa, maize yields could drop by 10–20% over the same
time frame.15 Fish and shellfish populations and overall fisheries yields will be damaged by
sea level rise, ocean temperature rise, and ocean acidification.16 Falling yields are likely to
lead to rising food prices and increased food insecurity.
Climate change is also projected to reduce water availability in many dry subtropical
regions,17 affecting food production. Farmers and pastoralists in semi-arid regions who
depend on seasonal rains will be particularly vulnerable, putting lives and livelihoods at
risk.18
It is worth looking at three key types of impacts of climate change on food systems: extreme
weather, gradual changes and disruption on natural systems.
Extreme weather events
Extreme weather events19, such as heatwaves, drought, torrential rainfall and flooding, can
damage crops, especially at crucial times such as during pollination. Climate change is
making such events more frequent.20 The World Metrological Organisation described 20012010 as “a decade of climate extremes”:21



Heat stress - Crop plants can suffer with heat stress particularly during pollination.
Dairy cows are also very vulnerable to heat stress, which leads to a reduction in milk
yields.22
Drought - In the United States, the worst drought since 1956 affected maize
supplies, reducing the global harvest by more than 50 million tonnes in 2012, pushing
up grain prices.23 A drought in California is into its 4th year affecting production of
globally traded crops and vegetables (see Box). In 2011 severe drought hit the Horn
of Africa, affecting millions of people. Scientists predict extreme heat and drought are
likely to become more frequent in Eastern and southern regions of Africa.24 On-going
drought in Mexico has devastated crops and cattle farms, and this could become the
norm as climate change impacts grow.25
Heavy rain - In the UK, heavy and persistent rain in 2012/13 severely damaged the
wheat harvest. According to a National Farmers Union poll of cereal growers, nearly
30% less wheat than usual was being grown forcing food producers to import 2.5m
tonnes of wheat.26
Global markets for many food crops mean that supply shocks in key producing areas are felt
around the world, contributing to social unrest in some regions.27
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Climate change and the Right to Food
Drought in California
California produces more than half of all the fruit and vegetables eaten in the United States, and is the
biggest agriculture producing state. But the $45 billion agricultural sector is struggling as a result of
persistently record breaking high temperatures28 and a three-year drought; with 2013 described as the
driest for 500 years29. The State Governor declared a state of emergency in January 2015 and there
are major programmes underway to manage water use by all users; domestic agricultural and
industrial30.
How the extreme drought currently withering California’s cornucopia of crops will affect global
supplies in the short and longer term is a serious and troubling question. Many important California
crops, such as almonds, avocados, grapes, and walnuts, are trees or perennial vines. Such perennial
systems cannot be rapidly adapted to a changing climate. Moving trees and vines to places with more
appropriate climatic conditions requires finding those places, replanting, and waiting years until trees
and vines are mature enough to produce fruit, all while climate changes continue to happen.
Creeping harm
Climate impacts will also take a more gradual but accelerating toll, eventually destroying the
potential for agriculture in some areas. ‘Slow onset events’ include rising temperatures,
desertification, salinization of soils, sea level rise, and ocean acidification. 31,32
As ambient temperatures rise, soils hold less moisture. Coupled with changing rainfall
patterns and an overall decrease in rainfall, the increase in temperatures and drying of soil
will lead over time to desertification and the loss of productive land.
Sea level rise is another example of a slow onset event which could have a serious impact
on the availability of land for agriculture. Rising sea levels not only lead to the direct loss of
land used for farming, but also increase saltwater levels in groundwater inland and leads to
the salinization of soils. Rising sea levels in the Mediterranean are predicted to affect as
much as 15% of agricultural land in the Nile Delta in Egypt, making fertile areas increasingly
difficult to cultivate. Such events can be especially devastating for farmers and rural
communities in low-income countries.
Loss of land, drought and other impacts are already leading to the partial and total
destruction of housing, land and property, the loss of livelihoods and widespread migration
and displacement across Bangladesh for instance.33
Disrupting natural systems
Rising temperatures, changes in rainfall, and temperature extremes can also expand the
geographical range of pests and diseases, posing a threat to crops. For instance, climate
change could increase the incidence and spread of ear blight fungus in wheat.34
A warmer, more humid atmosphere also increases the impacts of ground level ozone, which
reduces the rate of photosynthesis in plants, hampering growth and making crops more
vulnerable to drought.35 A number of livestock fodder crops, including soya, alfalfa and
clover are particularly sensitive to ozone, with IPCC projections suggesting that soybean
yields could be reduced by as much as 19% by 2030, exacerbated by hotter drier
conditions.36 Increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere have been shown to
reduce the protein levels in some crops, including wheat, rice, barley and potatoes.37
The combined impacts of changing temperatures, rainfall and humidity can lead to the loss
of key natural systems which provide services such as pollination, affecting the way in
which natural systems function. Seventy per cent of crops used directly for human food
consumption rely on insects for pollination,38 but bees and other pollinators are vulnerable to
changes such as climate extremes which upset the timing of insect emergence and plant
flowering.
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Climate change and the Right to Food
Potential impacts from possible temperature rises
Temperature
rise
1-2˚ C warming
Projected impacts on agriculture
- yield reduction for most maize growing areas in Sub-Saharan Africa of at
least 20% (in drought conditions), falling by 40% in the hottest areas;
- temperatures above 35°C can result in serious damage to many crops;39
- changes will affect pasture and livestock feed supplies;
- a rise of 2°C is likely to result in declines in agricultural productivity in all
food producing regions.40
2-4˚ C warming
All of above plus
- ash crops such as tea, cocoa and coffee crops (which are already affected
by rising temperatures) under increasing threat, unless a shift to higher
altitudes is possible;
- livestock will be threatened by a loss of forage, with water scarcity affecting
feed and pasture;
4˚C warming
All of above plus
- temperature rises above 4˚C will leave agricultural productivity vulnerable to
collapse;
- severe dieback of the Amazon forest is likely, affecting rainfall in South
America;
- large areas of prime agricultural land are likely to have disappeared as sea
levels rise.
Agriculture’s contribution to climate change
As noted, global food systems are a significant source of harmful GHG emissions.
Agriculture and land use change for farming are driving emissions of carbon dioxide,
methane and nitrous oxide, while transport, processing and refrigeration along the food
supply chain release carbon dioxide and halocarbons.
Whilst studies vary, it is estimated that production of inputs to agriculture, such as fertilisers,
agriculture production itself, and post-production transport, refrigeration and processing of
products all contribute to 19%–29% of all global human related GHG emissions. 41 42
Agricultural production is the bigger contributor within the food chain– being responsible for
80-86% of all food-related emissions. This is both directly, through agricultural practices
such as livestock rearing, and indirectly, via land-cover change as a result of opening new
agricultural lands for crops and feeds.
Emissions from farm-related deforestation make up the largest part of agricultural
emissions (38%), closely followed by emissions from livestock (35%).43
5
Climate change and the Right to Food
How food production contributes to emissions - Sources of global GHG emissions in
2010 by agriculture
Three-quarters of global deforestation is
due to demand for agricultural land.44 In
Southeast Asia forests on tropical peat
land are being converted for oil palm, 45
while in South America demand for beef
and land for soy for animal feed is driving
deforestation.46
Demand for land to grow biofuel and
other energy crops is adding to pressure
on forests, with policies to reduce
emissions by using biofuels in developed
countries leading to increased emissions
in other parts of the world.
The key agriculture-related greenhouse
gasses are methane, nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide:

Methane (CH4) - Methane is a potent GHG, and human-related emissions of
methane are thought to be responsible for nearly one-third of global warming.47 48
Agriculture is the largest source of human-related methane emissions (45%), which
has 24 times the warming effect than CO2. Emissions come from cattle and sheep
and other ruminants as part of their normal digestive process, from manure
decomposition (particularly from industrial lagoons as opposed to field deposited),
and also from rice cultivation. High and rising global demand for meat and the
increasing consumption of dairy products is expected to push methane emissions
even higher.49

Nitrous Oxide - Agriculture is also the largest human-related source of nitrous oxide
emissions (N2O). Nitrous oxide has 300 times more warming potential than CO2 and
global emissions are estimated to be responsible for 6% of human-related warming.50
Some 90% of agricultural N2O emissions come from treating farmland with nitrogen
fertilisers and manure. Use of synthetic nitrogen fertiliser has increased by more than
800% over the last 50 years,51 with demand for meat and dairy a major factor. It is
estimated that 70% of all agricultural N2O emissions result from fertiliser use on crops
for livestock feed and from manure management.52 If trends continue, the United
Nations Environment Programme estimates that N2O emissions could double by
2050.53

Carbon dioxide and halocarbons – CO2 emissions come from land use change and
fossil fuel use in farming, but also post farmgate; significant levels of CO2 emissions
come from processing, packaging, transportation and chilling. Energy-intensive
processes such as synthetic nitrogen fertiliser production (around 1% of all GHG
emissions54) refrigeration and transport are direct sources of CO2. Refrigeration uses
halocarbons, which are thought to be responsible for 11% of human-related warming.
55
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Climate change and the Right to Food
The case of meat and dairy
According to lifecycle analysis, meat and dairy products
have by far the highest GHG footprint,56 with vegetable
protein sources generating much lower emissions per
kilogram.57 Globally greenhouse gases from food production
will increase by 80% by 2050 if meat and dairy consumption
continues to rise at its current rate, researchers warn.58
False solutions
If we reduced our meat consumption in the more affluent
world we could feed several billion more people whilst
drastically reducing emissions, particularly of the most potent
methane and nitrous oxides.59 60 One study suggests that
that halving the consumption of meat, dairy products and
eggs in the European Union would achieve a 40% reduction
in nitrogen emissions, 25–40% reduction in greenhouse gas
emissions and 23% per capita less use of cropland for food
production. 61
agrochemical companies, have minimal environmental
Climate smart
The term is being used to legitimise industrial agriculture
practices, including GM crops, and soil carbon
offsetting. Current initiatives, such as the Global Alliance
for Climate Smart Agriculture, supported by major
or social criteria. It has attracted major criticisms that the
initiative is more about rebranding business-as-usual in
order to expand markets than a genuine attempt to
address climate impacts.
Soil carbon markets
Soil carbon can be converted back into atmospheric
CO2 if the land is ploughed, chemical fertilisers are
applied, or if the area suffers from prolonged drought,
heavy rain or accidental burning. Currently the Clean
The case of globalised and corporate controlled food
system
The food system is not governed well to ensure it is
equipped to deal with climate change. Making it resiliant will
involve changes to both how we farm; diversity of farms and
crops, closed nutrient cycles (to reduce fertiliser use, protect
soils etc), landscape scale conservation, soil and nature
protection and so on as well as ensuring farmers are in
control of the system and subsidies support sustainable,
resilient farming.
Development Mechanism (CDM) - the official UN
system that enables developed countries to buy carbon
offsets from projects in developing countries - does not
permit soil carbon offsets to be sold because they are
non-permanent. But some countries are lobbying for this
to change.
GM crops
GM crops are also being promoted as ‘climate smart’
and supported politically and financially, even though
they have a poor track record of delivering promised
benefits and come with further risks to food security. For
What needs to happen?
example, the Drought-tolerant Maize for Africa project,
researching conventional and GM crops, is finding that
Climate change is already affecting rights to food in some
parts of the world and the predicted negative impacts are
significant. Governments have a responsibility to act to
minimise the impacts of climate change on access to food
through a strong global climate deal.
conventional crops are easily outperforming GM
varieties
Friends of the Earth is one of a number of groups and coalitions calling for climate
negotiators in Paris in 2015 to recognise the right to food; to end taxpayer hand-outs to
industrial farming and food businesses, and to support community and small farm,
sustainable food systems.
We are also opposing false solutions which will exacerbate climate impacts and harm food
production in the long term (see Box) . This includes the so-called “climate smart
agriculture”62 initiatives. Agricultural emissions reductions should focus on avoiding
emissions in the first place and not on measures such as soil carbon markets (the process of
capture and storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide in soil - but which is easily reversible) or
risky GM crops (see Box).63,64
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Climate change and the Right to Food
The many countries with less industrialised agricultural systems – and with very low per
capita emissions - should not be the ones to have to significantly reduce emissions, i.e. carry
a mitigation burden. Instead, supporting them to adapt their agriculture to changing climate
patterns should be the priority. Countries that have heavily industrialised agricultural systems
and high consumption models contribute most to the problem, and therefore must take steps
to change their own practices. That includes ending taxpayer hand-outs to industrial farming
and food businesses.
Finally, any strategies at national and international level to reduce food related emissions
should include the need to recognise and act on the implications of high carbon diets and
future diet predictions for climate change. This in particular needs to address the role of
meat and dairy production and consumption and to tackle food loss and waste which
represent significant unnecessary emissions.
Specifically, we want negotiators to:
1. Recognise the Right to Food as a central outcome of the climate negotiations. This will
requires recognizing rights to those resources that are essential to food production –
land, water, seeds, forests, and fishing grounds. Protecting the rights of small-scale
producers to the resources needed to continue to produce food in a changing climate
must be paramount..
2. Minimise the impacts of climate change on access to food and water through a strong
global climate deal designed to minimise emissions. The temperature threshold for
evaluating emission reduction commitments must remain below 1.5°C.
3. Provide greater support for adaptation for vulnerable regions and the agriculture
sector, particularly for small-scale food producers, who produce the majority of the food
we consume. Support should be redirected to those practices that create and enhance
resilience, in particular agro-ecological practices that build soil fertility and soil moisture,
enhance seed, crop, and livestock diversity and local control of seed diversity.
4. Financial programmes must ensure the Right to Food for all by providing the
financial support required to prevent and compensate for loss and damage in the
agriculture sector, particularly to slow onset impacts on food production systems,
including fisheries. This means providing far more support than is currently on the table.
5. Avoid false or harmful solutions. Outcomes must ensure that developing countries do
not suffer food insecurity as a result of climate change mitigation actions, such as
biofuel mandates. This includes rejecting so-called “Climate Smart Agriculture” business-as-usual practices including intensive livestock production, synthetic fertiliser
and pesticide use, as well as soil carbon offsetting. Any approach to land and forests
emissions mitigation must be based on comprehensive land use planning and be rights
based.65
6. Recognise and act on the implications of high carbon diets and future diet
predictions for climate change, in particular the role of meat production and high levels of
consumption. Related agricultural emissions reductions (from methane (livestock),
nitrous oxide (fertilisers) as well as deforestation feed and pasture) should target avoided
emissions associated with these markets. Action must also be taken to raise awareness
of the climate impacts of high impact foods such as meat, and to help businesses and
people change behaviour. There is also a need to tackle food loss and waste. These
demand side measures should be part of national mitigation plans in countries with high
levels of consumption.
8
Climate change and the Right to Food
For more information on Friends of the Earth Land Use, Food and Water security work
go to https://www.foe.co.uk/page/land-food-water
Friends of the Earth is working with others to help build a global climate campaign.To
take action on climate change visit:
http://www.foe.co.uk/get_involved/climate_change
References
9
Climate change and the Right to Food
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Fitton, N and Smith,P(2013), Environ. Res. Lett. 8 (2013) 015009
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4
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Report of the Special Rapporteur on the right to food, Jean Ziegler, A/HRC/7/5, para 17
7
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18
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19
For more information on Extreme weather and climate events, see Friends of the Earth’s briefing:
http://www.foe.co.uk/sites/default/files/downloads/extreme_weather_cc.pdf
20
IPCC 2014 Special Report on Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change
Adaptation (SREX) http://ipcc-wg2.gov/SREX/report/ also see - Friends of the Earth, Climate change – what the scientists say,
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21
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22
Temperature Humidity Index (THI), Cool Cows website, Dairy Australia & Australian Government, 2012.
23
White, G., 2012. Food crisis fears mount as corn price hits record high. The Telegraph, 10 August 2012
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IPCC WG2 Fifth Assessment Report, 2014, p7
25
Stabinsky, Doreen and Hoffmaister, Juan, Loss and damage: defining slow onset events, Third World Network, August 2012
26
http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/jun/12/farmers-fail-weather-wheat-crop
27
The Food Crises and Political Instability in North Africa and the Middle East, M. Lagi, K.Z. Bertrand, Y. Bar-Yam,
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28
http://droughtmonitor.unl.edu/Home/StateDroughtMonitor.aspx?CA
29
http://newscenter.berkeley.edu/2014/01/21/states-water-woes/
30
http://ca.gov/drought/
31
Slow onset events are defined under Decision 1/cp.16,§ as including sea level rise, increasing temperatures, ocean
acidification, glacial retreat and related impacts, salinization, land and forest degradation, loss of biodiversity and
desertification.
32
IPCC WG1 report, Summary for Policy Makers, p16
33
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policies – mapping the institutional framework July 014
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38
Klein et al, 2007, Economic valuation of the vulnerability of world agriculture confronted with pollinator decline, Nicola Gallaia,
Jean-Michel Salles, Josef Settele, Bernard E. Vaissière, 2009, Ecological Economics, 68, 810–821
39
Nonlinear heat effects on African maize as evidenced by historical yield trials, David B. Lobell, Marianne Bänziger, Cosmos
Magorokosho and Bindiganavile Vivek, NATURE CLIMATE CHANGE VOL 1, APRIL 2011 DOI: 10.1038/NCLIMATE1043
40
Climate Stabilization Targets: Emissions, Concentrations, and Impacts over Decades to Millennia, US NRC, National
Academy of Sciences http://www.climateemergencyinstitute.com/uploads/NRC_climate_impacts.pdf
10
Climate change and the Right to Food
41
See Sonja J. Vermeulen,1,2 Bruce M. Campbell, and John S.I. Ingram Climate Change and Food Systems Annu. Rev.
Environ. Resour. 2012. 37:195–222; and The FAOSTAT database of greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture, Tubiello, F N,
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A rights based approach means that individuals and communities should know their rights. It also means that they should be
fully supported to participate in the development of policy and practices which affect their lives and to claim rights where
necessary.
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