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May 2015 Toast: climate change and the Right to Food How climate change undermines everyone’s right to food, the key role agriculture plays in driving climate change and what needs to happen at the United Nations climate talks in Paris 2015 and beyond. Introduction Food and water are basic requirements for human life, but climate change is threatening these vital resources. People in some parts of the world are already facing severe challenges in producing food under changing conditions; extreme weather events, rising temperatures, drought and rising sea levels are damaging harvests and reducing food supplies. Models suggest these impacts are likely to become increasingly severe as temperatures and climate instability increase. Agriculture is also a cause of climate change. Current chemical-intensive and large-scale farming practices, and growing demand for land, are a significant source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, with agriculture, forestry and associated land uses together estimated to contribute 18% of global man-made emissions.1 This briefing describes some of the key ways in which changes in our climate are threatening food supplies. It looks at some of the ways in which our use of land for agriculture exacerbates the problem. It concludes by urging government and international action on an ambitious climate change deal that protects the fundamental human right to food. The right to food and climate change Food and water are basic requirements for everyone. The international community has attempted to recognize and protect the right to adequate food through various legal agreements, including most prominently the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (see Box). For more than 40 years we’ve seen that the wellbeing of people and planet go hand in hand – and it’s been the inspiration for our campaigns. Together with thousands of people like you we’ve secured safer food and water, defended wildlife and natural habitats, championed the move to clean energy and acted to keep our climate stable. Be a Friend of the Earth – see things differently. 1 Climate change and the Right to Food Yet despite legal recognition at the international level of the human right to adequate food, one in seven people in the world do not have adequate access to food and some 6 million children die of starvation or related causes every year.2 An estimated 900 million people are undernourished.3 And as a further indicator of a dysfunctional food system, 1.4 billion adults across the world are overweight and 3.4 million adults die each year as a result of being overweight or obese.4 The right to food in UN agreements Article 11 of the UN International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural rights states that: 1. The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize the right of everyone to an adequate standard of living for himself and his family, including adequate food, clothing and housing, and to the continuous improvement of living conditions. The States Parties will take appropriate steps to ensure the realization of this right, recognizing to this effect the essential importance of international co-operation based on free consent. 2. The States Parties to the present Covenant, recognizing the fundamental right of everyone to be free from hunger, shall take, individually and through international co-operation, the measures, including specific programmes” Additionally United Nations Guidelines state that “The right to adequate food is realized when every man, woman and child, alone or in community with others, have physical and economic access at all times to adequate food or means for its procurement. .”.5 Olivier de Schutter served as the United Nations Special Rapporteur on the right to food from 2008 to 2014 and defined the Right to Food as “the right to have regular, permanent and unrestricted access, either directly or by means of financial purchases, to quantitatively and qualitatively adequate and sufficient food corresponding to the cultural traditions of the people to which the consumer belongs, and which ensure a physical and mental, individual and collective, fulfilling and dignified life free of fear.”6 We have enough food but fail to use and protect it We grow enough food right now to feed about 10 billion people7, and certainly enough food globally to feed the world’s population. Yet it is extremely unevenly distributed. Social and economic inequities prevent many people accessing a nutritionally balanced diet.8 Currently, 36% of the calories produced by the world's crops are being used for animal feed, and only 12% of those feed calories ultimately contribute to the human diet (as meat and other animal products).9 Additionally, human-edible calories used for biofuel production quadrupled from 2000 to 2010, from 1% to 4%. And we also lose up to a third of crops post-harvest – either spoiled in transit or thrown away by consumers in richer countries.10 Our food system is already failing the poorest and most vulnerable. Scientists warn that climate trends are now affecting11 the abundance and distribution of harvested aquatic species, both freshwater and marine, and aquaculture production systems. As climate change worsens its impacts on food, pastoral, and fishing systems, it will exacerbate food insecurity. In March this year the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) predicted up to 2% yield loss in farming per decade12 - “local temperature increases in excess of about 1°C above pre-industrial is projected to have negative effects on yields for the major crops (wheat, rice and maize) in both tropical and temperate regions”.13 We are already about 0.85 °C above pre-industrial levels. 2 Climate change and the Right to Food Climate impacts on food supplies Climate change is already affecting food supplies, including yields of staple crops such as wheat, soy, maize and rice. The IPCC extensive reviews confirm that negative impacts of climate change on these crop yields have been more common than positive impacts. 14 Impacts associated with on-going climate change, including rising temperatures, heat waves, droughts, floods, sea level rise, and salinization of land and aquifers will all contribute to further reducing food production, with Africa and Asia particularly affected. By 2050, climate change could cause irrigated wheat yields in developing countries to drop by 13%, and irrigated rice could fall by 15%. In Africa, maize yields could drop by 10–20% over the same time frame.15 Fish and shellfish populations and overall fisheries yields will be damaged by sea level rise, ocean temperature rise, and ocean acidification.16 Falling yields are likely to lead to rising food prices and increased food insecurity. Climate change is also projected to reduce water availability in many dry subtropical regions,17 affecting food production. Farmers and pastoralists in semi-arid regions who depend on seasonal rains will be particularly vulnerable, putting lives and livelihoods at risk.18 It is worth looking at three key types of impacts of climate change on food systems: extreme weather, gradual changes and disruption on natural systems. Extreme weather events Extreme weather events19, such as heatwaves, drought, torrential rainfall and flooding, can damage crops, especially at crucial times such as during pollination. Climate change is making such events more frequent.20 The World Metrological Organisation described 20012010 as “a decade of climate extremes”:21 Heat stress - Crop plants can suffer with heat stress particularly during pollination. Dairy cows are also very vulnerable to heat stress, which leads to a reduction in milk yields.22 Drought - In the United States, the worst drought since 1956 affected maize supplies, reducing the global harvest by more than 50 million tonnes in 2012, pushing up grain prices.23 A drought in California is into its 4th year affecting production of globally traded crops and vegetables (see Box). In 2011 severe drought hit the Horn of Africa, affecting millions of people. Scientists predict extreme heat and drought are likely to become more frequent in Eastern and southern regions of Africa.24 On-going drought in Mexico has devastated crops and cattle farms, and this could become the norm as climate change impacts grow.25 Heavy rain - In the UK, heavy and persistent rain in 2012/13 severely damaged the wheat harvest. According to a National Farmers Union poll of cereal growers, nearly 30% less wheat than usual was being grown forcing food producers to import 2.5m tonnes of wheat.26 Global markets for many food crops mean that supply shocks in key producing areas are felt around the world, contributing to social unrest in some regions.27 3 Climate change and the Right to Food Drought in California California produces more than half of all the fruit and vegetables eaten in the United States, and is the biggest agriculture producing state. But the $45 billion agricultural sector is struggling as a result of persistently record breaking high temperatures28 and a three-year drought; with 2013 described as the driest for 500 years29. The State Governor declared a state of emergency in January 2015 and there are major programmes underway to manage water use by all users; domestic agricultural and industrial30. How the extreme drought currently withering California’s cornucopia of crops will affect global supplies in the short and longer term is a serious and troubling question. Many important California crops, such as almonds, avocados, grapes, and walnuts, are trees or perennial vines. Such perennial systems cannot be rapidly adapted to a changing climate. Moving trees and vines to places with more appropriate climatic conditions requires finding those places, replanting, and waiting years until trees and vines are mature enough to produce fruit, all while climate changes continue to happen. Creeping harm Climate impacts will also take a more gradual but accelerating toll, eventually destroying the potential for agriculture in some areas. ‘Slow onset events’ include rising temperatures, desertification, salinization of soils, sea level rise, and ocean acidification. 31,32 As ambient temperatures rise, soils hold less moisture. Coupled with changing rainfall patterns and an overall decrease in rainfall, the increase in temperatures and drying of soil will lead over time to desertification and the loss of productive land. Sea level rise is another example of a slow onset event which could have a serious impact on the availability of land for agriculture. Rising sea levels not only lead to the direct loss of land used for farming, but also increase saltwater levels in groundwater inland and leads to the salinization of soils. Rising sea levels in the Mediterranean are predicted to affect as much as 15% of agricultural land in the Nile Delta in Egypt, making fertile areas increasingly difficult to cultivate. Such events can be especially devastating for farmers and rural communities in low-income countries. Loss of land, drought and other impacts are already leading to the partial and total destruction of housing, land and property, the loss of livelihoods and widespread migration and displacement across Bangladesh for instance.33 Disrupting natural systems Rising temperatures, changes in rainfall, and temperature extremes can also expand the geographical range of pests and diseases, posing a threat to crops. For instance, climate change could increase the incidence and spread of ear blight fungus in wheat.34 A warmer, more humid atmosphere also increases the impacts of ground level ozone, which reduces the rate of photosynthesis in plants, hampering growth and making crops more vulnerable to drought.35 A number of livestock fodder crops, including soya, alfalfa and clover are particularly sensitive to ozone, with IPCC projections suggesting that soybean yields could be reduced by as much as 19% by 2030, exacerbated by hotter drier conditions.36 Increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere have been shown to reduce the protein levels in some crops, including wheat, rice, barley and potatoes.37 The combined impacts of changing temperatures, rainfall and humidity can lead to the loss of key natural systems which provide services such as pollination, affecting the way in which natural systems function. Seventy per cent of crops used directly for human food consumption rely on insects for pollination,38 but bees and other pollinators are vulnerable to changes such as climate extremes which upset the timing of insect emergence and plant flowering. 4 Climate change and the Right to Food Potential impacts from possible temperature rises Temperature rise 1-2˚ C warming Projected impacts on agriculture - yield reduction for most maize growing areas in Sub-Saharan Africa of at least 20% (in drought conditions), falling by 40% in the hottest areas; - temperatures above 35°C can result in serious damage to many crops;39 - changes will affect pasture and livestock feed supplies; - a rise of 2°C is likely to result in declines in agricultural productivity in all food producing regions.40 2-4˚ C warming All of above plus - ash crops such as tea, cocoa and coffee crops (which are already affected by rising temperatures) under increasing threat, unless a shift to higher altitudes is possible; - livestock will be threatened by a loss of forage, with water scarcity affecting feed and pasture; 4˚C warming All of above plus - temperature rises above 4˚C will leave agricultural productivity vulnerable to collapse; - severe dieback of the Amazon forest is likely, affecting rainfall in South America; - large areas of prime agricultural land are likely to have disappeared as sea levels rise. Agriculture’s contribution to climate change As noted, global food systems are a significant source of harmful GHG emissions. Agriculture and land use change for farming are driving emissions of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide, while transport, processing and refrigeration along the food supply chain release carbon dioxide and halocarbons. Whilst studies vary, it is estimated that production of inputs to agriculture, such as fertilisers, agriculture production itself, and post-production transport, refrigeration and processing of products all contribute to 19%–29% of all global human related GHG emissions. 41 42 Agricultural production is the bigger contributor within the food chain– being responsible for 80-86% of all food-related emissions. This is both directly, through agricultural practices such as livestock rearing, and indirectly, via land-cover change as a result of opening new agricultural lands for crops and feeds. Emissions from farm-related deforestation make up the largest part of agricultural emissions (38%), closely followed by emissions from livestock (35%).43 5 Climate change and the Right to Food How food production contributes to emissions - Sources of global GHG emissions in 2010 by agriculture Three-quarters of global deforestation is due to demand for agricultural land.44 In Southeast Asia forests on tropical peat land are being converted for oil palm, 45 while in South America demand for beef and land for soy for animal feed is driving deforestation.46 Demand for land to grow biofuel and other energy crops is adding to pressure on forests, with policies to reduce emissions by using biofuels in developed countries leading to increased emissions in other parts of the world. The key agriculture-related greenhouse gasses are methane, nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide: Methane (CH4) - Methane is a potent GHG, and human-related emissions of methane are thought to be responsible for nearly one-third of global warming.47 48 Agriculture is the largest source of human-related methane emissions (45%), which has 24 times the warming effect than CO2. Emissions come from cattle and sheep and other ruminants as part of their normal digestive process, from manure decomposition (particularly from industrial lagoons as opposed to field deposited), and also from rice cultivation. High and rising global demand for meat and the increasing consumption of dairy products is expected to push methane emissions even higher.49 Nitrous Oxide - Agriculture is also the largest human-related source of nitrous oxide emissions (N2O). Nitrous oxide has 300 times more warming potential than CO2 and global emissions are estimated to be responsible for 6% of human-related warming.50 Some 90% of agricultural N2O emissions come from treating farmland with nitrogen fertilisers and manure. Use of synthetic nitrogen fertiliser has increased by more than 800% over the last 50 years,51 with demand for meat and dairy a major factor. It is estimated that 70% of all agricultural N2O emissions result from fertiliser use on crops for livestock feed and from manure management.52 If trends continue, the United Nations Environment Programme estimates that N2O emissions could double by 2050.53 Carbon dioxide and halocarbons – CO2 emissions come from land use change and fossil fuel use in farming, but also post farmgate; significant levels of CO2 emissions come from processing, packaging, transportation and chilling. Energy-intensive processes such as synthetic nitrogen fertiliser production (around 1% of all GHG emissions54) refrigeration and transport are direct sources of CO2. Refrigeration uses halocarbons, which are thought to be responsible for 11% of human-related warming. 55 6 Climate change and the Right to Food The case of meat and dairy According to lifecycle analysis, meat and dairy products have by far the highest GHG footprint,56 with vegetable protein sources generating much lower emissions per kilogram.57 Globally greenhouse gases from food production will increase by 80% by 2050 if meat and dairy consumption continues to rise at its current rate, researchers warn.58 False solutions If we reduced our meat consumption in the more affluent world we could feed several billion more people whilst drastically reducing emissions, particularly of the most potent methane and nitrous oxides.59 60 One study suggests that that halving the consumption of meat, dairy products and eggs in the European Union would achieve a 40% reduction in nitrogen emissions, 25–40% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and 23% per capita less use of cropland for food production. 61 agrochemical companies, have minimal environmental Climate smart The term is being used to legitimise industrial agriculture practices, including GM crops, and soil carbon offsetting. Current initiatives, such as the Global Alliance for Climate Smart Agriculture, supported by major or social criteria. It has attracted major criticisms that the initiative is more about rebranding business-as-usual in order to expand markets than a genuine attempt to address climate impacts. Soil carbon markets Soil carbon can be converted back into atmospheric CO2 if the land is ploughed, chemical fertilisers are applied, or if the area suffers from prolonged drought, heavy rain or accidental burning. Currently the Clean The case of globalised and corporate controlled food system The food system is not governed well to ensure it is equipped to deal with climate change. Making it resiliant will involve changes to both how we farm; diversity of farms and crops, closed nutrient cycles (to reduce fertiliser use, protect soils etc), landscape scale conservation, soil and nature protection and so on as well as ensuring farmers are in control of the system and subsidies support sustainable, resilient farming. Development Mechanism (CDM) - the official UN system that enables developed countries to buy carbon offsets from projects in developing countries - does not permit soil carbon offsets to be sold because they are non-permanent. But some countries are lobbying for this to change. GM crops GM crops are also being promoted as ‘climate smart’ and supported politically and financially, even though they have a poor track record of delivering promised benefits and come with further risks to food security. For What needs to happen? example, the Drought-tolerant Maize for Africa project, researching conventional and GM crops, is finding that Climate change is already affecting rights to food in some parts of the world and the predicted negative impacts are significant. Governments have a responsibility to act to minimise the impacts of climate change on access to food through a strong global climate deal. conventional crops are easily outperforming GM varieties Friends of the Earth is one of a number of groups and coalitions calling for climate negotiators in Paris in 2015 to recognise the right to food; to end taxpayer hand-outs to industrial farming and food businesses, and to support community and small farm, sustainable food systems. We are also opposing false solutions which will exacerbate climate impacts and harm food production in the long term (see Box) . This includes the so-called “climate smart agriculture”62 initiatives. Agricultural emissions reductions should focus on avoiding emissions in the first place and not on measures such as soil carbon markets (the process of capture and storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide in soil - but which is easily reversible) or risky GM crops (see Box).63,64 7 Climate change and the Right to Food The many countries with less industrialised agricultural systems – and with very low per capita emissions - should not be the ones to have to significantly reduce emissions, i.e. carry a mitigation burden. Instead, supporting them to adapt their agriculture to changing climate patterns should be the priority. Countries that have heavily industrialised agricultural systems and high consumption models contribute most to the problem, and therefore must take steps to change their own practices. That includes ending taxpayer hand-outs to industrial farming and food businesses. Finally, any strategies at national and international level to reduce food related emissions should include the need to recognise and act on the implications of high carbon diets and future diet predictions for climate change. This in particular needs to address the role of meat and dairy production and consumption and to tackle food loss and waste which represent significant unnecessary emissions. Specifically, we want negotiators to: 1. Recognise the Right to Food as a central outcome of the climate negotiations. This will requires recognizing rights to those resources that are essential to food production – land, water, seeds, forests, and fishing grounds. Protecting the rights of small-scale producers to the resources needed to continue to produce food in a changing climate must be paramount.. 2. Minimise the impacts of climate change on access to food and water through a strong global climate deal designed to minimise emissions. The temperature threshold for evaluating emission reduction commitments must remain below 1.5°C. 3. Provide greater support for adaptation for vulnerable regions and the agriculture sector, particularly for small-scale food producers, who produce the majority of the food we consume. Support should be redirected to those practices that create and enhance resilience, in particular agro-ecological practices that build soil fertility and soil moisture, enhance seed, crop, and livestock diversity and local control of seed diversity. 4. Financial programmes must ensure the Right to Food for all by providing the financial support required to prevent and compensate for loss and damage in the agriculture sector, particularly to slow onset impacts on food production systems, including fisheries. This means providing far more support than is currently on the table. 5. Avoid false or harmful solutions. Outcomes must ensure that developing countries do not suffer food insecurity as a result of climate change mitigation actions, such as biofuel mandates. This includes rejecting so-called “Climate Smart Agriculture” business-as-usual practices including intensive livestock production, synthetic fertiliser and pesticide use, as well as soil carbon offsetting. Any approach to land and forests emissions mitigation must be based on comprehensive land use planning and be rights based.65 6. Recognise and act on the implications of high carbon diets and future diet predictions for climate change, in particular the role of meat production and high levels of consumption. Related agricultural emissions reductions (from methane (livestock), nitrous oxide (fertilisers) as well as deforestation feed and pasture) should target avoided emissions associated with these markets. Action must also be taken to raise awareness of the climate impacts of high impact foods such as meat, and to help businesses and people change behaviour. There is also a need to tackle food loss and waste. These demand side measures should be part of national mitigation plans in countries with high levels of consumption. 8 Climate change and the Right to Food For more information on Friends of the Earth Land Use, Food and Water security work go to https://www.foe.co.uk/page/land-food-water Friends of the Earth is working with others to help build a global climate campaign.To take action on climate change visit: http://www.foe.co.uk/get_involved/climate_change References 9 Climate change and the Right to Food 1 The FAOSTAT database of greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture, Tubiello, F N, Salvatore, M, Rossi, S, Ferrara, A, Fitton, N and Smith,P(2013), Environ. Res. Lett. 8 (2013) 015009 2 http://www.righttofood.org/work-of-jean-ziegler-at-the-un/what-is-the-right-to-food/ 3 World Health Organization, ‘Obesity and overweight’, http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs311/en/ 4 http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs311/en/ 5 http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/righttofood/documents/RTF_publications/EN/General_Comment_12_EN.pdf and UN FAO Voluntary Guidelines http://www.fao.org/3/a-y7937e.pdf 6 Report of the Special Rapporteur on the right to food, Jean Ziegler, A/HRC/7/5, para 17 7 http://smallplanet.org/sites/smallplanet.org/files/Small_Planet_World_Hunger_Fact_Sheet.pdf 8 McIntyre, B. D. et al. (eds), Agriculture at a Crossroads: International Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge Science and Technology for Development: Synthesis Report (2009) 9 Redefining agricultural yields: from tonnes to people nourished per hectare Emily S Cassidy, Paul C West, James S Gerber and Jonathan A 2013 Environ. Res. Lett. 8 034015 http://iopscience.iop.org/1748-9326/8/3/034015 10 J. Gustavsson and others, Global Food Losses and Food Waste: Extent, Causes and Prevention (FAO, 2011). 11 Lobell DB1, Schlenker W, Costa-Roberts J Science. (2011) Jul 29;333(6042):616-20. doi: 10.1126/science.1204531. Epub 2011 May 5. Climate trends and global crop production since 1980.and IPCC, 2014: Summary for policymakers. In: Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Field, C.B., V.R. Barros, D.J. Dokken, K.J. Mach, M.D. Mastrandrea, T.E. Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K.L. Ebi, Y.O. Estrada, R.C. Genova, B. Girma, E.S. Kissel, A.N. Levy, S. MacCracken,P.R. Mastrandrea, and L.L. White (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1-32. 12 IPCC WGII AR5 Chapter 7 http://ipcc-wg2.gov/AR5/images/uploads/WGIIAR5-Chap7_FGDall.pdf 13 IPCC WG2 report, Summary for Policy Makers, p13 14 Lobell DB1, Schlenker W, Costa-Roberts J Science. 2011 op sit and IPCC, 2014: op cit 15 http://www.nature.com/news/one-third-of-our-greenhouse-gas-emissions-come-from-agriculture-1.11708#/ref-link-1 16 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Working Group 2 March 2013 17 Climate Change: Implications for Agriculture, Key Findings from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Fifth Assessment Report, 2013, University of Cambridge. 18 IPCC WG2 report, Summary for Policy Makers, p12 19 For more information on Extreme weather and climate events, see Friends of the Earth’s briefing: http://www.foe.co.uk/sites/default/files/downloads/extreme_weather_cc.pdf 20 IPCC 2014 Special Report on Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation (SREX) http://ipcc-wg2.gov/SREX/report/ also see - Friends of the Earth, Climate change – what the scientists say, Friends of the Earth Briefing, November 2013, http://www.foe.co.uk/sites/default/files/downloads/ipcc_report_2013.pdf 21 World Meteorological Office, 2013, the global climate 2001–2010, a decade of climate extremes, summary report 22 Temperature Humidity Index (THI), Cool Cows website, Dairy Australia & Australian Government, 2012. 23 White, G., 2012. Food crisis fears mount as corn price hits record high. The Telegraph, 10 August 2012 24 IPCC WG2 Fifth Assessment Report, 2014, p7 25 Stabinsky, Doreen and Hoffmaister, Juan, Loss and damage: defining slow onset events, Third World Network, August 2012 26 http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/jun/12/farmers-fail-weather-wheat-crop 27 The Food Crises and Political Instability in North Africa and the Middle East, M. Lagi, K.Z. Bertrand, Y. Bar-Yam, arXiv:1108.2455 (10.7.2011). http://necsi.edu/research/social/foodcrises.html 28 http://droughtmonitor.unl.edu/Home/StateDroughtMonitor.aspx?CA 29 http://newscenter.berkeley.edu/2014/01/21/states-water-woes/ 30 http://ca.gov/drought/ 31 Slow onset events are defined under Decision 1/cp.16,§ as including sea level rise, increasing temperatures, ocean acidification, glacial retreat and related impacts, salinization, land and forest degradation, loss of biodiversity and desertification. 32 IPCC WG1 report, Summary for Policy Makers, p16 33 Bangladesh housing, land and property (HLP) rights initiative climate Displacement in Bangladesh: Stakeholders, Laws and policies – mapping the institutional framework July 014 http://www.google.co.uk/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=12&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CGAQFjAL&url=http%3A%2F %2Fdisplacementsolutions.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2FMapping-Study-Climate-DisplacementBangladesh.pdf&ei=76K2VOPYCYfraJWngLAG&usg=AFQjCNEubcXBlQb86BKuiOkbFwmxyblJrw&sig2=qLrlKexlJvQha137So Ewsw&bvm=bv.83640239 ,d.d2s 34 http://www.herts.ac.uk/about-us/news/2014/february/climate-change-puts-wheat-crops-at-risk-of-disease 35 Wilkinson, S., Mills, G., Illidge, R., Davies, W.J. (2011) How is ozone pollution reducing our food supply? Journal of Exp. Botany DOI 10.1093/jxb/err317 36 Ozone Pollution: A hidden threat to food security, Report by the ICP Vegetation, September, 2011Gina Mills and Harry Harmens (Editors) http://icpvegetation.ceh.ac.uk/publications/documents/ozoneandfoodsecurity-ICPVegetationreport%202011-published.pdf 37 Climate Change: Implications for Agriculture, Key Findings from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Fifth Assessment Report, 2013, University of Cambridge. 38 Klein et al, 2007, Economic valuation of the vulnerability of world agriculture confronted with pollinator decline, Nicola Gallaia, Jean-Michel Salles, Josef Settele, Bernard E. Vaissière, 2009, Ecological Economics, 68, 810–821 39 Nonlinear heat effects on African maize as evidenced by historical yield trials, David B. Lobell, Marianne Bänziger, Cosmos Magorokosho and Bindiganavile Vivek, NATURE CLIMATE CHANGE VOL 1, APRIL 2011 DOI: 10.1038/NCLIMATE1043 40 Climate Stabilization Targets: Emissions, Concentrations, and Impacts over Decades to Millennia, US NRC, National Academy of Sciences http://www.climateemergencyinstitute.com/uploads/NRC_climate_impacts.pdf 10 Climate change and the Right to Food 41 See Sonja J. Vermeulen,1,2 Bruce M. Campbell, and John S.I. Ingram Climate Change and Food Systems Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 2012. 37:195–222; and The FAOSTAT database of greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture, Tubiello, F N, Salvatore, M, Rossi, S, Ferrara, A, Fitton, N and Smith, P(2013), Environ. Res. 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In: Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Stocker, T.F., D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S. K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex and P.M. Midgley (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA 48 IPCC Working Group I Contribution To The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report, CLIMATE CHANGE 2013: THE PHYSICAL SCIENCE BASIS , IPCC, 2013 http://www.climatechange2013.org/images/uploads/WGIAR5_WGI-12Doc2b_FinalDraft_All.pdf 49 Tackling climate change through livestock – A global assessment of emissions and mitigation Opportunities,Gerber, P.J., Steinfeld, H., Henderson, B., Mottet, A., Opio, C., Dijkman, J., Falcucci, A. & Tempio, G, 2013. 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ActionAid International September 2014 http://actionaid.org/sites/files/actionaid/csag_clevernamelosinggame.pdf 64 Cross-bred crops get fit faster Nature 513, 292 (18 September 2014) http://www.nature.com/news/cross-bred-crops-get-fitfaster-1.15940 65 A rights based approach means that individuals and communities should know their rights. It also means that they should be fully supported to participate in the development of policy and practices which affect their lives and to claim rights where necessary. 11