Download Behaviorism

What is a Behavior?
1) Observable
2) Definable
3) Measurable
- frequency (how often does it occur?)
- duration (how long does it occur?)
Behavioral and Social
Cognitive Approaches
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that
occurs through experience.
There are five major approaches to learning.
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Behavioral and Social
Cognitive Approaches
Behaviorism: Behavior is explained by observable experiences.
Mental Processes The observable thoughts,
feelings, and motives that
we experience
Associative
Learning that two
Learning
events are connected
Cognitive: Includes social cognitive, information processing,
cognitive constructivist, and social constructivist
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Contiguity or Associated Learning
Learning by simple associations: Pairing
Stimulus → Response
Examples:
Golden Arches = McDonalds
Times tables (7 X 8 = 56)
States & capitals (Lansing, MI)
Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning
We learn to
associate two
stimuli
Behavioral and Social
Cognitive Approaches
Behavioral
Approaches to
Learning
Classical
Conditioning
Operant
Conditioning
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Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov
1849-1936
Russian physician/
neurophysiologist
Nobel Prize in 1904
studied digestive
secretions
Behavioral Approaches
Classical Conditioning is a type of learning in which an organism learns to
connect or associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus becomes associated with a
meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response.
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Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
stimulus that unconditionally--automatically and
naturally--triggers a response
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
unlearned, naturally occurring response to the
unconditioned stimulus
salivation when food is in the mouth
Classical Conditioning
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association
with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a
conditioned response
Conditioned Response (CR)
learned response to a previously neutral conditioned
stimulus
Acquisition
The CS needs to come half a second before
the US to cause acquisition.
When Christina was a baby, her parents would drive her
around in the car to get her to fall asleep because the
feeling of motion automatically made her drowsy. As an
adult, Christina feels drowsy whenever she sits in a car,
even when it is not moving.
What is the unconditioned stimulus (US)?
_________________________________
What is the unconditioned response (UR)?
_________________________________
What is the conditioned stimulus (CS)?
___________________________________
What is the conditioned response (CR)?
___________________________________
Whenever Jim’s father drinks too much, he gets very
violent and beats Jim severely. This has happened on
several occasions. Now, just the smell of beer makes Jim
fearful.
What is the unconditioned stimulus (US)?
_________________________________
What is the unconditioned response (UR)?
_________________________________
What is the conditioned stimulus (CS)?
___________________________________
What is the conditioned response (CR)?
___________________________________
The Troublesome Shower (example of an acquired behavior via
CC)
Martin is taking a shower in the men’s locker room after working out.
While in the shower he hears someone flush a toilet. Suddenly,
very hot water rushes out of the shower head causing Martin to get
slightly burnt. As he continues to shower, he hears another toilet
flushing and immediately jumps out from under the shower head.
What is the unconditioned stimulus (US)?
_________________________________
What is the unconditioned response (UR)?
_________________________________
What is the conditioned stimulus (CS)?
___________________________________
What is the conditioned response (CR)?
___________________________________
Pavlov’s Classical
Conditioning
Unconditioned Stimulus causes an Unconditioned Response
+
Neutral Stimulus
Unconditioned Stimulus
=
Conditioned Stimulus
Conditioned Stimulus
causes a
Conditioned Response
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006
Classical Conditioning: An
Example
Flash of camera (UCS)
Camera (NS)
causes
+
Blinking (UCR)
Flash of camera (UCS)
=
Camera (CS)
Camera (CS)
causes
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006
Blinking (CR)
Nausea Conditioning in Cancer
Patients
UCS
(drug)
UCR
(nausea)
CS
(waiting
room)
UCS
(drug)
UCR
(nausea)
CS
(waiting
room)
CR
(nausea)
John B. Watson
recommended study of
behavior without
reference to unobservable
mental processes
Conditioned emotional response
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Classical Classroom Examples
A first grader feels ill when recess time
approaches because he was beat up on the
playground the last 3 days in a row.
Certain smells that can elicit nauseous
sensations (Hopefully NOT from the
cafeteria!)
Speech phobia : cold sweat, shaking knees
and hands
Phobias in general
Behavioral Approaches
Classical Conditioning
Generalization
The tendency of a new stimulus
similar to the original
conditioned stimulus to
produce a similar response.
Discrimination
The organism responds to
certain stimuli and not others.
The weakening of the
conditioned response (CR) in
the absence of the
unconditioned stimulus (US).
Extinction
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Behavioral Approaches
Classical Conditioning
Systematic Desensitization reduces anxiety by
getting the individual to associate deep relaxation
with successive visualizations of increasing
anxiety-producing situations.
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Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning
Theory into Practice
Patty does poorly on a math test. This makes her feel
anxious. From that point on, she always becomes
anxious when taking a math test. As the school year
progresses, she begins experiencing anxiety when she
has tests in other subject areas as well.
Q.1: Identify the US in the example above.
Q.2: Identify the UR in the example above.
Q.3: Identify the CS in the example above.
Q.4: Identify the CR in the example above.
7.24
Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning
Theory into Practice
Patty does poorly on a math test. This makes her feel
anxious. From that point on, she always becomes
anxious when taking a math test. As the school year
progresses, she begins experiencing anxiety when she
has tests in other subject areas as well.
Q: Why would Patty begin to experience anxiety in
response to tests in content areas other than
math?
7.25
Behavioral Approaches
Operant Conditioning is a form of learning in
which the consequences of behavior produce
changes in the probability that the behavior
will occur.
Thorndike’s Law of Effect
Behavior
Positive Outcome
Behavior
Strengthened
Behavior
Negative Outcome
Behavior
Weakened
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Operant Conditioning
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
elaborated Thorndike’s
Law of Effect
developed behavioral
technology
Behavioral Approaches
Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
Operant Behavior - operates (acts) on environment
produces consequences
Consequences (rewards and punishments)
are contingent on the organism’s behavior.
Reinforcement (reward) increases
the probability that a behavior will occur.
Punishment decreases the probability
that a behavior will occur.
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Reinforcement Examples
Primary Reinforcers:
Food
Water
Warmth
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006
Security
Sex
Reinforcement Examples
Secondary Reinfocers
Money
Grades
Stars
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006
Praise
Types of Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement – giving something that the
person wants that increases the behavior
Examples:
Praise
Teacher attention
Rewards
Negative reinforcement – taking away something
that the person does not want that increases the
behavior
Chores
Taking away time-out
Types of Punishment
Presentation Punishment (type I) – giving something
that the person does not want that decreases the
behavior
Detention
Extra work
Removal Punishment (type II) – taking away
something that the person wants that decreases the
behavior
Loss of recess
Loss of privileges
Behavioral Approaches
Generalization
Giving the same response
to similar stimuli.
Discrimination
Differentiating among stimuli
or environmental events.
Extinction
Previously reinforced response
is no longer reinforced and the
response decreases.
One way to deal with a child’s
temper tantrum is to ignore it
resulting in extinction
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Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
Theory into Practice
Nick frequently gets out of his seat and entertains his
classmates with humorous remarks. Mr. Lincoln often
scolds Nick for his behavior. However, Nick’s classmates
laugh when Nick makes remarks. The scolding rarely has
any impact. Nick continues with his antics.
Q.1: What is Mr. Lincoln attempting to do when he scolds Nick?
Q.2: Why does Nick continue his antics in spite of being scolded?
Q.3: What are three strategies Mr. Lincoln could try to keep Nick
more on task?
7.16
Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement
reinforcing the desired response each time it occurs
Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement
reinforcing a response only part of the time
results in slower acquisition
greater resistance to extinction
Reinforcement Schedules
Types of Reinforcement Schedules
Continuous
Intermittent
Fixed
Interval
Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon
Variable
Ratio
Ratio
Interval
Schedules of
Reinforcement:
Frequency and Predictability
Fixed Ratio:
reinforcer given
after fixed
number of
behaviors
Fixed Interval:
reinforcement
only at certain
periodic times
Variable Ratio:
reinforcer given
after
unpredictable
number of
behaviors
Variable
Interval:
reinforcement
at some times
but not others
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006
Francis sells jewelry to a local gift shop. Each time he
completes 10 pairs of earrings, the shopkeeper pays
him for them. This is an example of a ___________
schedule of reinforcement.
A. Fixed ratio
B. Variable ratio
C. Fixed interval
D. Variable interval
Sandra’s mail is delivered every day at 10:00. She checks
her mailbox several times each morning, but only finds
mail the first time she checks after 10:00. This is an
example of a __________ schedule of reinforcement
A. Fixed ratio
B. Variable ratio
C. Fixed interval
D. Variable interval
Vernon is practicing his golf putting. On the average, it
takes him four tries before the ball goes in the hole.
This is an example of a _________ schedule of
reinforcement
A. Fixed ratio
B. Variable ratio
C. Fixed interval
D. Variable interval
Paula is an eager third-grader, and loves to be called on
by her teacher. Her teacher calls on her approximately
twice each period, although Paula is never sure when
her turn will come. This is an example of a __________
schedule of reinforcement
A. Fixed ratio
B. Variable ratio
C. Fixed interval
D. Variable interval
Role of Consequences:
Reinforcement
Premack Principle (“Grandma’s Rule”):
promoting less-desired activities by linking
them to more-desired activities
“If you eat your
vegetables, you
may have
dessert.”
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006
Applied Behavioral Analysis
Reinforcement: Prompts and Shaping
Prompts: Added stimuli that are given just before the
likelihood that the behavior will occur.
─Get behavior going.
─Once desired behavior is consistent, remove prompts.
Shaping: Involves teaching new behaviors by reinforcing
successive approximations of the desired behavior.
─First, reward any response.
─Next, reward responses that resemble the desired
behavior.
─Finally, reward only target behavior.
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LO 5.23
Real world example use of conditioning
Real World Example
Training a cat to use the toilet
will involve:
Shaping.
Preparing “the training
arena.”
Positive reinforcement on a
variable schedule.
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Operant Chamber
Skinner Box
chamber with a bar or
key that an animal
manipulates to obtain a
food or water
reinforcer
contains devices to
record responses
Applied Behavioral Analysis
Applied Behavioral Analysis:
Applying the principles of operant
conditioning to change human
behavior.
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Classroom Uses of
Reinforcement
1. Identify behaviors you want from your students, then
reinforce them when they occur.
2. Tell students which behaviors you want; when they
occur, reinforce them and explain why the behavior
is desirable.
3. Reinforce appropriate behavior immediately.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006
Maintenance of Behavior in the
Classroom
When teaching a new behavior/skill, reinforcement
for correct responses should be:
•Frequent
•Predictable
When a behavior/skill is established,
reinforcement for correct responses should be:
•Less frequent
•Less predictable
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006
Applied Behavioral Analysis
Reinforcement
Guidelines for the Classroom:
─Initial learning is better with continuous
reinforcement.
─Students on fixed schedules show less persistence,
faster response extinction.
─Students show greatest persistence on variableinterval schedule.
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Applied Behavioral Analysis
Increasing Desirable Behaviors
.
1. Choose effective
reinforcers.
2. Make reinforcers
contingent and timely.
3. Select the BEST
reinforcement schedule.
4. Consider contracting.
5. Use negative
reinforcement
effectively.
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Applied Behavioral Analysis
Decreasing Undesirable Behaviors
1. Use differential reinforcement by reinforcing
more appropriate behavior.
2. Withdraw positive reinforcement from a child’s
inappropriate behavior.
3. Remove desirable stimuli through “time-out
and response cost.”
4. Present aversive (unpleasant) stimuli.
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Bandura’s Social Cognitive
Theory
Social, Cognitive, and Behavioral
factors play important roles in learning.
Self-efficacy: The belief that
one can master a situation and
produce positive outcomes.
Observational Learning occurs when
a person observes and imitates
someone else’s behavior.
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LO 5.21
Bandura’s classic Bobo doll study
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© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory
B
Behavior
P/C
Person and
Cognitive
factors
E
Environment
7.53
.
Social Cognitive Approaches
to Learning
Bandura’s Contemporary Model
Attention
Students are more likely to
be attentive to high status
models (teachers).
Production
Poor motor ability inhibits
reproduction of the model’s
behavior. Help improve skills.
Retention
Student retention will be
improved when teachers give
logical and clear
demonstrations.
Motivation
When given a reinforcement,
modeling increases.
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Modeling Violence
Children modeling after pro wrestlers
Glassman/ The Image Works
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works
Research has shown that viewing media violence does lead to
increased expression of aggression.
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory
Theory into Practice
Nick frequently gets out of his seat and entertains his
classmates with humorous remarks. Mr. Lincoln often
scolds Nick for his behavior. However, Nick’s
classmates laugh when Nick makes remarks. The
scolding rarely has any impact. Nick continues with
his antics. After several days of this, other boys in the
class begin to get out of their seats and make
humorous remarks as well.
Q.1: Why do the other boys begin to misbehave? Explain.
Q.2: What does this say about Nick?
7.31
Social Cognitive Approaches
to Learning
Classroom Use of Observational Learning
Decide the type of
model you will be
Demonstrate and teach
new behaviors
Use peers as
effective models
Use mentors as
models
Consider the models
children observe
in the media
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Social Cognitive Approaches
to Learning
Self-Regulatory Learning
A Model of Self-Regulatory Learning
Self-Evaluation
and Monitoring
Monitoring Outcomes
and Refining Strategies
Goal Setting and
Strategic Planning
Putting a Plan into
Action and Monitoring It
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Antecedent – Behavior – Consequence (ABC)
assessment procedure
Antecedent – what occurs before the behavior
Behavior – action emitted by child
Consequence – does reinforcement or
punishment take place
Frequency Recording
Time Sampling
T: Observation 1 = 20%
T: Observation 2 = 60%
C: Observation 1 = 80%
C: Observation 2 = 100%