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Reader’s Guide (cont.)
Vocabulary
– memory 
– semantic memory 
– encoding 
– episodic memory 
– storage 
– declarative memory 
– retrieval 
– procedural memory
– sensory memory 
– short-term memory 
– maintenance
rehearsal 
– chunking 
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Psychology.
1
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information. Section 1 begins on page 273 of your textbook.
Introduction
• What would life without memory be like?
Can you even imagine it? 
• Consider all the material stored in your
memory: 
– your Social Security number 
– the capital of South Dakota 
– “The Star-Spangled Banner” 
– you first love’s phone number 
– the important generals of the Civil War 
– the starting lineup for the Boston Red Sox 
– your best friend in the first grade
2
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Introduction (cont.)
• What kind of incredible filing system
allows you to recover instantly a line from
your favorite movie? 
• How does all that information fit in
your head?
3
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The Processes of Memory
• The storage and retrieval of what has
been learned or experienced is memory. 
• To recall information, you use three
memory processes. 
• The first memory process is encoding–
the transforming of information so that the
nervous system can process it.
memory
the storage and retrieval
of what has been learned
or experienced
4
encoding
the transforming of
information so the nervous
system can process it
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The Process of Memory
5
The Processes of Memory (cont.)
• After information is encoded, it goes
through the second memory process,
storage. 
• This is the process by which information is
maintained over a period of time. 
• The amount of information stored
depends on how much effort was put into
encoding the information.
storage
the process by which
information is maintained
over a period of time
6
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The Processes of Memory (cont.)
• The third memory process, retrieval,
occurs when information is brought to
mind from storage. 
• The ease in which information can be
retrieved depends on how efficiently it was
encoded and stored (as well as on other
factors such as genetic background).
retrieval
the process of obtaining
information that has been
stored in memory
7
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Sensory Memory
• In sensory memory, the senses of sight
and hearing (among other senses) are
able to hold an input for a fraction of a
second before it disappears. 
• Sensory memory serves three functions: 
– prevents you from being overwhelmed. 
– gives you some decision time. 
– allows for continuity and stability in your world.
sensory memory
very brief memory storage
immediately following initial
reception of a stimulus
8
Short-Term Memory
• The things you have in your conscious
mind at any one moment are being held
in short-term memory. 
• Short-term memory does not necessarily
involve paying close attention.
short-term memory
memory that is limited in
capacity to about seven items
and in duration by the
subject’s active rehearsal
9
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Short-Term Memory (cont.)
Maintenance Rehearsal
• To keep information in short-term
memory for more than a few seconds,
you usually have to repeat the
information to yourself, in your mind or
out loud. 
• This is what psychologists mean by
maintenance rehearsal.
maintenance rehearsal
a system for remembering
involving repeating information
to oneself without attempting
to find meaning in it
10
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Spot the Fake Penny
11
Short-Term Memory (cont.)
Chunking
• Short-term memory is limited not only in
its duration but also in its capacity. 
• The most interesting aspect of this limit,
discovered by George Miller (1956), is
that it involves about seven items (plus or
minus two items) of any kind. 
• Each item may consist of a collection of
many other items, but if they are all
packaged into one “chunk,” then there is
still only one item.
12
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Short-Term Memory (cont.)
Chunking
• We can remember about seven unrelated
sets of initials or the initials of our favorite
radio stations, even though we could not
remember all the letters separately. 
• This is referred to as chunking, because
we have connected, or “chunked,” them
together.
chunking
the process of grouping
items to make them easier
to remember
13
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Short-Term Memory (cont.)
The Primacy-Recency Effect
• The primacy-recency effect refers to the
fact that we are better able to recall
information presented at the beginning
and end of a list. 
• Remembering the first four or five items in
a list because you have more time to
rehearse them is the primacy effect. 
• Recalling the last four or five items
because they were still in short-term
memory is the recency effect.
14
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Short-Term Memory (cont.)
Working Memory
• Short-term memory is also called
working memory. 
• Working memory serves as a system
for processing and working with
current information. 
• Working memory includes both short-term
memory (events that just occurred) and
information stored in long-term memory,
now recalled for current information.
15
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Long-Term Memory
• Long-term memory refers to the storage
of information over extended periods
of time. 
• Information is not stored like a piece of
paper in a filing cabinet; it is stored
according to categories or features. 
• You reconstruct what you must recall
when you need it. 
• Long-term memory contains
representations of countless facts,
experiences, and sensations.
16
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Three Systems of Memory
17
Long-Term Memory (cont.)
Types of Long-Term Memory
• Semantic memory is our knowledge
of language, including its rules, words,
and meanings; we share that knowledge
with other speakers of our language. 
• Episodic memory is our memory of
our own life–such as when you woke up
this morning.
semantic memory
knowledge of language,
including its rules, words,
and meanings
18
episodic memory
memory of one’s life,
including time of occurrence
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Long-Term Memory (cont.)
Types of Long-Term Memory
• L.R. Squire (1987) proposed a related
model of memory. 
• Declarative memory involves both
episodic and semantic memory. 
• Procedural memory does not require
conscious recollection to have past learning
or experiences impact our performance.
declarative memory
memory of knowledge that
can be called forth
consciously as needed
19
procedural memory
memory of learned skills
that does not require
conscious recollection
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Memory and the Brain
• What happens in the brain when something
is stored in long-term memory? 
• Although psychologists agree that some
physiological changes occur in the brain,
they are only beginning to identify how and
where memories are stored. 
• Some psychologists theorize a change
in the neuronal structure of nerves occurs
when we learn something. 
• Others contend learning is based on
molecular or chemical changes in
the brain.
20
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Memory and the Brain (cont.)
• Where does learning occur? 
• There is growing evidence that formation
of procedural memories involves activity
in an area of the brain called the striatum,
deep in the front part of our cortex. 
• Declarative memories result from activity
in the hippocampus and the amygdala
(Mishkin, Saunders, & Murray, 1984).
21
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Memory Centers in the Brain
22
Memory and the Brain (cont.)
• It is not clear yet how individual neurons
establish connections with one another
when learning occurs. 
• It is clear that a very complex chemical
process precedes the formation of new
connections between neurons.
23
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