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BASIC COMPONENTS OF LIVING THINGS BOOK PAGE 21-29 14-20 What are plants made up of ? What are animals made up of ? All living things are made up of cells. But what are cells made up of ? Atoms and molecules An atom contains charged particles.It consists of nucleus and electrons. Nucleus is positive, containing positive protons and neutral protons. Electrons are negative. Normaly the number of electrons is the same as the number of protons and the atom is neutral. It is possible to remove or add one or more electrons to atom.Then the atoms becomes charged ions. Molecules-Water A molecule is a collection of atoms linked by a network of bonds Chemical bonds When atoms combine with each other they form chemical bonds between the atoms. To attain a stable electron configuration they have to achieve the maximum number of electrons in the outermost energy level, atoms can either : donate, accept, or share Ionic bonds Opposite charges attract so the ions in sodium chloride are held together by the attraction between Na+ and Cl -. This forms an ionic bond. Na Cl Covalent bonds In this type of bond 1, 2 or 3 pairs of electrons are shared between participating atoms. The shared electrons now circulate about both atoms participating in the bond. covalent bonds are relatively strong covalent bonds are much more common in organic compounds (and therefore in the biological world) Hydrogen bonds One special type of interaction between polar molecules occurs in many organic (and hence biological) molecules where the weak attraction of the partial charge on a hydrogen atom in a covalent bond for the partial negative charge on an atom in another molecule is termed a hydrogen bond. LIVING THINGS INORGANIC WATER MINERALS ACIDS, BASES ORGANIC CARBO HYDRATES PROTEINS LIPIDS ENZYMES VITAMINS NUCLEIC ACIDS ATP Inorganic and Organic molecules Cannot synthesize Take in readily Important in structure Can have different kind of elements Can not be digested or hydrolyzed. Never used as energy source Water, salt, minerals, acid and bases Can synthesize Important in structure, energy and homeostasis Always have C,H,O Can be broken down(not vitamins) Can be used as energy source Proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, vitamins, enzymes, nucleic acids Water Source Food Chemical reactions Drinking water Function Good Solvent Breaking up macromolecules (hydrolysis) Cell Membrane transport (in/out) Keep body temparature constant In photosynthesis Chemical reactions/enzymes Acids and Bases Acids give out H ions Turns blue turnusol paper into red Sour taste 1 2 3 4 5 Bases give out OH ions Turns red turnusol paper into blue Bitter taste 8 9 6 7 10 11 12 13 If H ion concentration increases, acidity increases. pH decreases. If H ion concentration decreases basicity increases. pH increases. pH is important for chemical reactions to occur. Because it effects the enzyme activity. 14 Minerals and Salts Salts form as a result of reaction between a strong acid and a strong base HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O (Neutralisation reaction) Salt and mineral concentrations are always kept constant. Important in muscle contraction Important in water exchange. Important component in Bones(Ca, P), Chlorophyll (Mg)and hemoglobin (Fe), ATP (P) energy molecule. Activates enzymes for chemical reactions Cannot broken into parts(can not digested or hydrolysed), cannot give energy Exess of the minerals are stored (Ca P in bones) or thrown out by urine(Na, Cl, K). Name of the mineral Calcium Food rich in mineral Function of the mineral Milk,cheese, bread For bones, teeth Phosphorus Milk, fish, meat Flourine Toothpaste, water Iodine Sea food, salt Iron Liver, egg yolk For hormone thyroxine hemoglobin Sodium Meat, milk, egg, salt For nerves Chlorine Salt, vegetables Chemical reactions Copper Liver, egg, fish Chemical reactions Zinc Meat, milk, yogurt, rice For wound heal Magnesium Nut, green vegetables For bones,teeth, eyes For teeth For chlorophyll Hydrolysis and Dehydration Organic molecules are large molecules. They are called polymers. Polymers are made up of small molecules, small molecules are called monomers. HYDROLYSIS Polymers are broken down by hydrolysis reaction. Polymer + H2O monomer+monomer+…… In hydrolysis water is used DEHYDRATION Monomers form polymers by dehydration reaction. Monomer+monomer+monomer…… Polymer+ H2O In dehydration water is formed In hydrolysis polymers are broken down by using water. Number of water = Number of bonds = Number of small molecules molecules used that are broken formed down - 1 (n) In Dehydration monomers form polymers by forming water. Number of bonds Number of small - 1 = Number of water = that are formed molecules molecules used formed (n) If you want to form a large molecule from 2 small units, how many bonds occur? 1 bond If you want to form a large molecule from 10 small units, how many bonds occur? 10-1=9 bonds If you want to form a large molecule from 10 small molecule , how many H2O molecules can form? 10-1=9 water mol. You have a large molecule which is composed of 8 units. If you want to breakdown this large molecule, how many water molecules should you use? 8-1= 7 water mol. CARBOHYDRATES Organic molecules Contain C, H, O formula- (CH2O)n Gives energy by the breakdown of the chemical bonds Photosynthetic living things synthesize their carbohydrates by themselves. 6 CO2+6 H2O C6H12O6 + 6 O2 Structural component of living things (DNA, RNA, ATP) CARBOHYDRATES Structural component of living things (DNA, RNA, ATP), They have 5 C sugars(pentose) Deoxyribose Ribose CARBOHYDRATES MONOSACCHARIDES •Simple sugars C6H12O6 •Can not be hydrolysed into smaller units (monomers) DISACCHARIDES •Composed of 2 monosaccharides. POLYSACCHARIDES • composed of many monosaccharides •Formed by dehydration. Bond’s •Formed by dehydration. name is Glycoside bond. Bond’s name is Glycoside •5C- deoxyribose, ribose, ATP bond. •Can be broken down by •6C- glucose, fructose, hydrolysis into monomers. •Can be broken down by hydrolysis into monomers galactose and are soluble •Mono+mono disacch+H2O • (n)mono poly+(n-1) H2O •Plants can synthesize but •Lactose– glucose+galactose animals get it readily. •Starch •sucrose-or saccharoseglucose+fructose •Cellulose glucose •Maltose- glucose+glucose •glycogen •Unsoluble, change color with iodine Disaccharides 2 monomers form disaccharides. 1 mol H2O is formed Polysaccharides n( monosaccharide) Polysaccharide+ (n-1) water Starch, cellulose, glycogen have the monomer of glucose. But they have different bonding. Importance of carbohydrates They are used as energy source in cellular respiration. They are broken down to monosaccharides in the digestive system and absorbed like that. They are stored as starch in plants. Animals can not store starch. Cellulose functions in structure, not in storage. They are stored as glycogen in animals, most of them are soluble in water. Plants can not store glycogen. Important in regulation of blood sugar level. Found in Cell membrane-with lipids and proteins for Recognition of foreign molecules Excess of the carbohydrates are converted into fat and stored like that. Human can not digest cellulose. Special animals digest it with the help of the bacteries. Plant carbohydrates(cellulose-rouphage) are important in the proper working of the digestive system. Sugar cane, banana, apple, grape, grains, liver, meat, potato are sources of carbohydrates. REVIEW QUESTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES Describe the chemical makeup of carbohydrates ? (CH2O)n How can you classify carbohydrates? We can classify carbohydrates according to their monomer number. Monosaccharides_have one monomer Disaccahrides_have 2 monomers Polysaccharides_have many monomers What are the functions of carbohydrates? Gives energy by the breakdown of the chemical bonds Structural component of living things (DNA, RNA, ATP) Found in Cell membrane-with lipids and proteins, Recognition of foreign molecules Found in cell wall as cellulose, found in insects as chitin. Explain how disaccharides form? 2 monosaccharides form disaccharides by dehydration reaction. 1 mol H2O and 1 bond are formed. Bond’s name is Glycoside bond. Compare hydrolysis and dehydration reaction. Monomers form polymers by dehydration reaction. In dehydration water is formed Polymers are broken down by hydrolysis reaction.. In hydrolysis water is used Classify the reactions below: Formation of sucrose from glucose and fructose Synthesis of starch from glucose Breakdown of maltose to form glucose Formation of glucose from cellulose. Dehydration.. Dehydration.. Hydrolysis Hydrolysis LIPIDS Lipids are not soluble in water. They can solve in aceton, alcohol, chloroform or benzene. Contain C,H,O Monomers are: Fatty acids and Glycerol. In a molecule of lipid, there are 3 molecules of fatty acids and one molecule of glycerol. Lipids are formed by dehydration reaction. 3 molecules of water is formed. There are esther bonds between fatty acid molecules and glycerol. Lipid structure- Triglycerides 1 glycerol + 3 fatty acids 1 lipid+ 3 water Properties Important energy source. It has energy twice as much as carbohydrates and proteins. But they are used as second energy source. They are used as storage molecule. They are the main component of the cell membrane. (ın membrane they are found as phospholipids) Lipids are classified according to their fatty acid structure: saturated and unsaturated lipids. Saturated and Unsaturated lipids Fatty acids have long carbon chains. 2 molecules of H can be bound to Carbons. If there is only one bond between carbon molecules, they are saturated lipids. (All carbons are saturated with maximum number of H). Butter, margarine. (Found mostly in animals) If there is some double bonds between carbon molecules, they are unsaturated lipids. Oils, olive oil (found mostly in plants) Importance of Lipids Protects internal organs. Heart, intestine Insulates the body, keeps the temperature constant. Excess of carbohydrates and proteins are converted into fats. It causes obesity. Fat soluble vitamins(ADEK) are dissolved in the fats and absorbed with them. Some fatty acid molecules(essential fatty acids) can not be synthesized by animals. They have to take these fatty acid from plants. Plants can synthesize all. Meat, milk, cheese, egg, sesame,sunflower seed, nuts are rich in lipids. Phosoholipids in cell membrane give fluidity and flexibility. Cell membrane lipid- Phospholipid They are found in cell membrane. A phosphate group is bound to the glycerol. It has 2 fatty acid chains. Phosphate group loves water (hydrophilic), Fatty acid part hates water (hydrophobic). By their Hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts, a double layered cell membrane is formed. Hydrophobic part stays inside and Hydrophilic part stays outside (face cytoplasm or outer part) Cell membrane lipidPhospholipid It is composed of 1 glycerol, 1 phosphate, 2 fatty acid chain. REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR LIPIDS What is a esther bond? It is the bond between fatty acids and glycerol How a lipid molecule is formed? It is formed by the dehydration between 1 molecule of glycerol and 3 molecules of fatty acid If we want to form 5 molecules of lipid, How many monomers of the lipids we need? For the one molecule of lipid, we need 1 molecule of glycerol and 3 molecules of fatty acid. 1 glycerol x 5= 5 glycerol 3 fatty acid x 5= 15 fatty acid Molecules are needed. If we we use 12 molecules of water to breakdown lipid, can you determine how many lipid molecule do we have at the beginning? And how many bonds did we break? 1 mol of lipid is broken down by 3 mol of water 12 mol of water can broke down 4 mol of lipid List the organic compounds according their energy amount?(high to low) Lipids-carbohydrates-proteins List the organic compounds according to their usage for energy?(high to low) Carbohydrates-lipids-proteins Compare saturated and unsaturated lipids? saturated unsaturated Solid at room temp. Fatty acid chains have only single bonds. Found mostly in animal cells Liquid at room temp. Fatty acid chains have double bonds. Found mostly in plant cells List importance of lipids. Protects internal organs. Heart, intestine Insulates the body, keep the temperature. Excess of carbohydrates and proteins are converted into fats. It causes obesity. Fat soluble vitamins are dissolved in the fats and absorbed with them. When they are broken down, 3 molecules of water are used and energy is given out. Some fatty acid molecules can not synthesized by animals. They have to take these fatty acid from plants. Meat, milk, cheese, egg, sesame,sunflower sedd, nuts are rich in lipids. They are the main component of the cell membrane Give energy By looking at the charts below, find out the names of the organic molecules? Structural use of the organic molecules Usage of molecules as energy source I Organic molecule II Energy amount of the molecul e III Organic molecule time I II III a. Carbohydrate lipid protein b. protein carbohydrate lipid c. lipid protein carbohydrate d. protein lipid carbohydrate e.carbohydrate protein lipid By looking at the charts below, find out what kind of reactions are they? I II I. hydrolysis II. dehydration Food X+ Fehling A Fehling B Food X+ lugol Food Y+ Fehling A Fehling B Food Y+ lugol Colors: Black Brown-orange Dark Blue Green-light orange These are the results of an experiment (determination of carbohydrates) done in the laboratory. Can you list the foods ( X and Y) according to their carbohydrate content from high to low? X>Y Write the monomers of the molecules lipid sucrose lactose cellulose galactose glycogen Fatty acid + glycerol Glucose + Fructose Galactose + glucose Glucose (many) it is a monomer Glucose (many) How a lipid molecule is formed? 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acid combined with 3 esther bonds . How many water molecule is formed from the polysaccharide made up of 19 monosaccharides? 19-1 =18 water formed . If we want to form 6 molecules of lipid, How many monomers should we use? Give their exact names and numbers. 6 lipid has 6 glycerol and 6x3=fatty acid . A lipid molecule has 30 esther bonds inside. Howmany monomers does it have ? (give their exact name and number) 30 fatty acid 10 glycerol 1. In a lipid synthesizing cell, 240 molecules of water is formed during synthesis. How many glycerol molecule is used? 240 / 3= 2. Liquid lipids : i. Contain esther bonds between glycerol and fatty acid ii.They give higher energy than carbohydrates and proteins iii. They have double bonds in fatty acids Which of the statements above is not a property of solid lipids? 3. Glycerol + 3 fatty acid A B Lipid + 3 H2O According to the reactions above: i. A is a hydrolysis, and B is a dehydration reaction ii. The amount of water formed at the end of the reaction is equal to the bonds formed iii. The chemical make up of the reactant molecules change. Which of them is true? 4. To get all of the fatty acid types , What kind of a lipid molecule should be eaten? PROTEINS Proteins are the most essential compounds for the living things. They are the half of our weight. Proteins contain N and sometimes, Phosphorus and sulphur. The building block of the proteins are amino acids. Amino acis contain amino group(NH3), carboxyl group(COOH) and radical® group. Amino acids are bound together by peptide bonds between the amino group of an amino acid and the carboxyl group of the other. Amino and carboxyl groups are same for each amino acid, but radical groups are different. There are 20 aminoacids in nature. So there are 20 radical groups. How do proteins differ from each other? Proteins differ in their total number of amino acid units they contain. (some have 2, some have 3, some have 6,7 or 100 or more) Proteins differ in their diversity of aminoacids(type of aminoacid). Proteins differ in their amino acid sequence. ABC BAC ABCA Each organism has a different protein structure because DNA differs in all organisms except twins(clones). Proteins are synthesized by ribosomes, they get the information from nucleic acid. Proteins can have a lipid or carbohydrate group. Glycoprotein, Lipoprotein. aa-peptide bond-aa-peptide bond Essential aminoacids: methionine or cysteine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine, phenylalanine (or tyrosine), threonine, tryptophan, and valine Humans can not synthesize them; they are dietary requirements Foods with no limiting amino acids: legumes (soybean), cereal grains, nuts, dairy products, eggs, meat, and fish, liver, milk, cheese. Importance of proteins: Structure: found in membranes and organelles for transport , catalysis and recognition. Catalysis: They have role in reactions as enzymes. Control: Some hormones in our body are protein. Transport: Hemoglobin is a protein which carries Oxygen Movement: Muscle structure(actin and myosin) Protection: immune system-antibodies are protein Energy: they are important in structure , so body doesn’t want to use them as energy source. But in some cases it can be used(starvation). Meat, poultry, fish, eggs, milk, cheese, beans, cereals are rich in proteins A one celled organism is treated with X rays. X rays changed the genetic make up (DNA) of the cell. When the cell is examined, it is detected that the cell can’t produce a protein which was produced before. What can be said at the end of the experiment? a. Genes are located in the DNA. b. Proteins are synthesized from DNA. c. Proteins are synthesized by ribosomes. d. Changes in the DNA doesn’t effect protein production e. If proteins are changed, the DNA will be changed. 2. Which of the following reactions is different from the others? a. Amino acid + amino acid Dipeptide b. Fatty acid + glycerol Lipid c. Starch + H2O Maltose d. Fructose + glucose Sucrose e. Glucose(n) Cellulose 1. 3. The diversity of amino acids depends on: i. Amino group ii. Carboxyl group iii.Radical group 4. Essential aminoacids: i. Can’t be synthesized in human body ii.Is different in individuals of the same species iii. Is different in the individuals of the different species iv. Can’t be synthesized at older ages. Which of them is true? 5. Protein similarities are used in: i. Determination of relationships among organisms ii. Tissue and organ transplantation iii. Classification of animals 6. Which of the following is not effective in protein diversity? a. Number of aa b. Bonds between aa c. Type of aa d. Sequence of aa e. DNA make up (genes) ENZYMES Enzymes are biological catalysts produced by living things. They are protein molecules and not living things themselves. All reactions need energy to start. This energy is called activation energy. To speed up reactions we have to lower the energy required. Enzymes or catalysts lower the activation energy. In this way they increase the speed of the reactions. Number of ATP used Without enzymes With enzymes time 1. According to the graphic ,which of the statements can not be reached? a. b. c. d. e. Enzyme usage reduces the required energy Enzyme speeds up the reaction Reactioons can occur without enzymes Many types of enzymes can be used. ATP is used for reaction to proceed. Enzyme names The names of the different types of enzymes usually end in the letters -ase. Three of the most common enzymes (with their chemical actions) are lipase, which breaks down fats protease, which breaks down proteins, and carbohydrase, which breaks down carbohydrates Structure and function of enzymes Enzymes are very specific in the reactions they catalyse: different enzymes catalyse different reactions. For a given enzyme molecule, only certain reactant molecules (the substrate) can fit into its active site. Some enzymes don’t have only proteins , they sometimes have non protein part. Protein part of the enzyme is called apoenzyme. If non protein part contains minerals(inorganic), this part is called cofactor. Same mineral can activate different enzymes. If non protein part contains vitamins(organic), this part is called coenzyme. Same vitamin can activate different enzymes. The parts of the enzymes are: Apoenzyme ii. Coenzyme iii. Cofactor Which part makes the enzyme specific for one kind of reaction? i. Properties of enzymes 1. When an enzyme and a substrate are joined, they lower the activation energy, reaction can occur easily. 2. The enzymes can work in reverse directions. The reactions are reversible. Same enzymes take part in both reactions. 3. An enzyme is not used in the reaction. It stays same. It can not change its structure during the reactions. So it can be used many times. 4. Enzymes are specific. Each enzyme is specific for one kind of reaction. It can not be used in other reactions. 5. They can work inside and outside of the cell. Digestive enzymes work outside, catalase works inside. 6. They speed up the reactions. 7. Reactions can be in chains. One product of the reaction , can be a substrate of the other reaction. In a protein synthesizing cell, Which graphic is true for the changes of the amount of water molecules, enzyme and amino acids. I shows the water II shows the aa III shows the enzyme Number of molecules Number of molecules I II I III III II time time Factors affecting the rate of the enzymes 1. Temperature Enzymes usually work best in warm conditions (around 36-40 °C). Enzyme shape is changed at high temp. Reaction stops and never start again. Low temp. (1-10 ° C) slows down the reaction. The shape is not changed. 2. pH An enzyme will work best at a particular temperature and pH, called its optimum conditions. stomach enzymes work in pH 1-2. Salivary enzyme Salivary enzymes work in pH 7-8. Stomach enzyme 3. Concentration of enzyme If the concentration of enzyme little and substrate is large, increasing the enzyme concentration increases the rate of reaction. But after all substrate molecules are used and no change will be in the rate of reaction 4. Concentration of substrate If there are more enzyme molecules, If we increase the concentration of substrate, the rate of the reaction increases . But after all enzyme molecules are full, they can not change the rate of reaction. 5. Surface area: the reactions starts at the outer area of the substrate. Increasing the surface area, increases the rate of enzyme activity. SA=6 =6 SA=600 = 0.6 V 1 1 V 1000 10 6. Water: Water content affects the activity of enzymes. Dry seeds don’t germinate.Their enzymes are not active. 7. Inhibitors / activators: Poisons, heavy metals inhibit the action of the enzymes. Some minerals can activate the enzyme. If the amount of substrate of a hydrolysis enzyme is maximum, Which of the factors changes the amount of the product? I. Optimum temperature II. Addition of enzyme to the reaction III. Increasing the surface area of the substrate VITAMINS Vitamins are a group of substances essential for normal metabolism, growth and development, and regulation of cell function. Animals can’t synthesize vitamins but plants do. Vitamins work together with enzymes, as co-enzymes Important in development and growth of the body. Important in bone formation Blood cell formation, Blood clotting Prevents diseases, increase resistance of the body Types of Vitamins fat-soluble vitamins the vitamins are stored in the fat tissues in your body and in your liver. They can be poisonous. Vitamins A, D, E, and K are all fat-soluble vitamins. water-soluble vitamins When you eat foods that have water-soluble vitamins, the vitamins don't get stored in your body . The excess is thrown out by urine. B group and C vitamins are water soluble NUCLEIC ACIDS Nucleic acids are made up of nucleotides. Nucleotides have Phosphate group, 5 C sugar (monosaccharide) and Base(nitrogenous). Property DNA RNA Location Nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, Bases Sugar (5C) Phosphate A,T,G,C Deoxribose same U,A,G,C Ribose same Number of chains Replication Kinds 2 (double stranded) 1(single strand) Yes 1 Function Store genetic codes No 3 mRNA(messenger), tRNA(transfer), rRNA(ribosomal) Protein synthesis Cytoplasm, mitochondria, chloroplasts, nucleus, ribosomes DNA RNA DNA DNA molecular structure is established by Watson and Crick in 1953 . There are two chains linked together in DNA molecule.(Double stranded) . Nucleotides are bound together by hydrogen bonds. And always an Adenine combines with a Thymine. A= T (2 bonds) “So number of A equals to number of T” A Cytosine combines with a Guanine. C ≡ G (3 bonds) “So number of C equals to number of G” If A number is equal to T number, then C number equals to G number. A + C = T + G or A + G = T + C A C A A T G G C = T ≡ G = T = T =A ≡C ≡C ≡ G A +G =1 T+C Classification of bases Purine Pyrimidine DNA chain DNA complementary chain Chargaff ’s rule 2 rings 1 ring Question 1. The order of nucleotides in a chain of DNA is AGCTTA. a. What is the order of nucleotides in the complementary chain of this DNA? b. What is the total number of hydrogen bonds between chains? 1. a. DNA Complementary DNA AGCTTA TCGAAT b. between A= T there should be 2 bonds between G ≡ C there should be 3 bonds. So A= T 2 x 4 = 8 bonds , G ≡C 3x2=6 8 + 6 = 14 total hydrogen bonds. There are 3600 nucleotides in a DNA molecule. If 400 of them are adenine, Find a. The number of the other nucleotides. b. Give number of purines and pyrimidines. c. the number of deoxyribose sugars and phosphate groups. a. . A= 400 so T= 400 too. 400+400= 800 3600 – 800= 2800 2800 / 2 = 1400 Guanine and 1400 Cytosine b. A, G are purines 400 + 1400 = 1800 purines C, T are pyrimidines 400 + 1400 = 1800 pyrimidines c. Number of nucleotides = number of deoxribose = number of phosphate 3600 nucleotides = 3600 deoxyribose = 3600 phosphate 3. In a DNA molecule there are 1000 pairs of nucleotide. If 300 of them are guanine, what is the number of T? 1000 pairs of nucleotide= 2000 nucleotides If G= C , then G+C= 600 nucleotides 2000-600= 1400 nucleotides= T+A If T=A then T is 1400 / 2 = 700 nucleotides of T In an experimental condition, there are 1500 A, 500 T, 1100 G, 800 C and 3000 deoxyribose and 3000 phosphate. How many nucleotides can be formed? 1500+500+1100+800= 3900 bases can be used but there are only 3000 deoxyribose and phosphate only 3000 nucleotides can be formed. How many nucleotide long DNA can be formed? A should be equal to T G should be equal to C because DNA is double chained. If T number is 500, A=T= 500 G= C= 800 DNA should be 1300 nucleotides long But we spent 2600 nucleotides because it is double stranded.!! In a DNA molecule with 220 nucleotide, there are 50 A, what is the number of C? A= 50=T A+T= 100 220 – (A+T)= G+C 220- 100= 120= G+C if G= C then G= 120 / 2= 60 In a DNA molecule 30 % of nucleotides are Guanine ,what is the percentage of Thymine? G= 30 % = C C+G= 60 % 100 – (30+30)= A+T= 40 % if A=T T= 40/2= 20 % In an experimental procedure 60 A, 80 T, 50 C, 50 G and 250 deoxiribose and phosphate molecules are found. How many nucleotide long DNA can be formed? A should be equal to T C should be equal to G 60 A 80T only 60 of then combine together to form DNA double chain. 50 C 50 G all of C and G combine together. 60A=60T + 50C=50T 110 = 110 nucleotide long ; but 220 nucleotides are used If a DNA molecule has 6400 hydrogen bonds and 600 guanine molecules ,What is the number of Thymine nucleotides? Guanine has 3 H bond with Cytosine So 600 x 3 = 1800 H bond between G and C The remaining bonds are between A and T 6400 – 1800 = 4600 bonds between A and T There are 2 bonds between A and T 4600/2 = 2300 is the number of A = number of T If G + C number is 600 and there are total 2600 deoxyribose molecules, What is the H bond number? If G + C = 600 , G should be 300. The bonds between G and C = 300 x 3= 900 If G+C= 600 then A+T= 2600 – 600=2000 And A should be 1000 The bond between A and T = 1000 x 2= 2000 Total bond number = 2000+900=2900 PhosphoDiesther bond Esther bonds Glycoside bond Importance of nucleotides: DNA carries the genetic code of the organism. Genetic code of each organism is different from each other(except identical twins). Genetic code differs in the base sequences. Each organism has same chromosome number and same base sequence in his/her all cells. DNA can copy itself. This process is necessary for cell division. As a result each cell will take equal amount of DNA. The copying process is called as replication. DNA replication is a semi conservative process. 2 chains of the DNA open and each strand replicates itself. As a result each new DNA recieves one old an done new strand. DNA also carries information for protein synthesis in the cell. It sends message for protein synthesis to the cytoplasm. These processes are shown by this figure. DNA Transcription mRNA Translation Protein Replication Replication always occurs where the DNA is. Transcription also always occurs where the DNA is. Translation also always occurs where the m RNA and ribosomes are. DNA replication is a semi conservative process. 2 chains of the DNA open and each strand replicates itself. As a result each new DNA recieves one old and one new strand. Replication occurs where the DNA is.(In bacteria there is no nucleus ) If a cell can’t divide, it can not replicate its DNA (sperm cells, nerve cells, red blood cells) •Transcription occurs where the DNA is, because it copies DNA •Translation occurs where the ribosome is, because it needs ribosomes. RNA RNAs also are synthesized from DNA. RNAs are important for protein synthesis. There are 3 types of RNA. mRNA –messenger RNA. It carries information from DNA to ribosome. The formed mRNA is complementary to one of the strand of DNA(meaningful strand) . r RNA-ribosomal RNA. It forms the ribosome structure with proteins. It is synthesized from nucleolus. t-RNA transfer RNA It carries aminoacids for protein synthesis. GENETIC CODE As we said before protein is synthesized from DNA. The code for Protein synthesis comes from the DNA, It is coded with bases in the DNA. The 4 bases in the DNA forms chains of nucleotides. The 3 base code for one aminoacid.This 3 base structure is called as “code” . If we have 4 bases, we can form 43=64 different codes. This 64 codes are responsible for the synthesis of proteins. One code is for start and 3 codes are for stop. ENERGY MOLECULE - ATP ATP is formed by cellular respiration. Every cell needs energy as ATP (Adenosine Tri Phosphate) Structure of ATP 5C sugar- Ribose and Adenine base: they are called Adenosine 3 phosphate groups can be added to the adenosine. If one is added It is Adenosine mono phosphate, 2- Adenosine di phosphate ; 3- Adenosine tri phosphate Function and importance of ATP Hydrolysis of 3rd bond gives 7300 cal.(7.3 kcal) It is ONLY produced and used within the cell. It can not be stored. Hydrolysis gives out energy, dehydration takes in energy. Used in dehydration reactions, muscle contraction, nerve impulses not in hydrolysis. Phosphorylation: Adding P to ADP(occurs in cytoplasm, mitochondria and chloroplasts) Dephosphorylation: breaking P bond from ATP(occurs in cytoplasm and chloroplasts and in anabolic(dehydration reactions)) METABOLISM All chemical activities within the cell are called metabolic activities or metabolism of the organism. There are two kinds of metabolic activities. Anabolism or the anabolic reactions are synthesis reactions. They produce polymers. For example formation of proteins, polypeptides.Water is formed.Needs energy. Catabolism or catabolic reactions are the breakdown reactions. They produce monomers. For example formation of amino acids from proteins, monosaccharides from carbohydrates. Water is used. needs energy(ATP)