* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Download Unit 04 Lecture Notes - Roderick Anatomy and Physiology
Butyric acid wikipedia , lookup
Fatty acid synthesis wikipedia , lookup
Gene expression wikipedia , lookup
Proteolysis wikipedia , lookup
Vectors in gene therapy wikipedia , lookup
Genetic code wikipedia , lookup
Artificial gene synthesis wikipedia , lookup
NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase (H+-translocating) wikipedia , lookup
Point mutation wikipedia , lookup
Fatty acid metabolism wikipedia , lookup
Metalloprotein wikipedia , lookup
Mitochondrion wikipedia , lookup
Amino acid synthesis wikipedia , lookup
Epitranscriptome wikipedia , lookup
Metabolic network modelling wikipedia , lookup
Photosynthesis wikipedia , lookup
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide wikipedia , lookup
Deoxyribozyme wikipedia , lookup
Electron transport chain wikipedia , lookup
Photosynthetic reaction centre wikipedia , lookup
Microbial metabolism wikipedia , lookup
Nucleic acid analogue wikipedia , lookup
Evolution of metal ions in biological systems wikipedia , lookup
Basal metabolic rate wikipedia , lookup
Light-dependent reactions wikipedia , lookup
Biosynthesis wikipedia , lookup
Adenosine triphosphate wikipedia , lookup
Citric acid cycle wikipedia , lookup
Oxidative phosphorylation wikipedia , lookup
Unit 04 Cellular Metabolism Latin Word Form Meaning De- Prefix Opposite Hydro Root water Lyse Root To break -sis Suffix Process off Ana Prefix Build Cata Prefix Break -ism suffix An action or result Synth Root To create -ase Suffix Type of enzyme Co- Prefix Together Glyco Root Sugar tri- Prefix Three Anti- Prefix Against/opposite Covered in this Unit • • • • • • • • 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 Introduction Metabolic Reactions Control of Metabolic Reactions Energy for Metabolic Reactions Metabolic Pathways Nucleic Acids Protein Synthesis DNA Replication 4.1 Objectives • Cells require information and energy • An enzyme is a special type of protein that controls chemical reactions • Genes carry the information needed to create proteins and enzymes 4.2 Objective • I can differentiate between Anabolism and Catabolism • I can explain how Dehydration Synthesis works • I can explain why Dehydration synthesis is an anabolic reaction • I can explain how Hydrolysis works • I can explain why Hydrolysis is an anabolic reaction • I understand how Dehydration synthesis and Hydrolysis work together to build and break down carbohydrates, proteins and nucleic acids. 4.3 Objectives • I can describe the general characteristics of an Enzyme (structure and function) • I can explain how enzymes and substrates interact to speed up chemical reactions. • I can explain how enzymes and substrates are specific. • I can list 4 factors that alter (denature) enzymes • I can give examples of cofactors and describe its function. 4.4 Objectives • I know what energy is • I know the 9 different forms energy can take • I know where chemical energy is stored and how it can be released. • I can describe how oxidation is different from burning. 4.4 Objectives Cont. • I know the 3 reactions that make up cellular respiration. • I know the general characteristics of Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) • I know the difference between Anaerobic and Aerobic Respiration • I know the where glycolysis occurs, its input and outputs and whether or not it is anaerobic or aerobic. • I know the where the citric acid cycle occurs, its input and outputs and whether or not it is anaerobic or aerobic. • I know where the electron transport chain occurs, its input and outputs and whether or not it is anaerobic. • I can explain what the term oxidative phosphorylation means. 4.5 Objectives • I can explain what a metabolic pathway is. • I can describe how a rate-limiting enzyme can control a chemical pathway. • I know that the rate-limiting enzyme is the first enzyme in a series. • I can list and describe the Lipid metabolic pathway for energy • I can list and describe the steps in the protein metabolic pathway for energy 4.6 Objectives • I know what DNA is and why it is important to cells. • I know can explain how information is transmitted from parents to offspring. • I know all DNA in a cell is known as a person’s genome • I can draw and describe the physical structure of a DNA molecule • I understand the concept of base pairing. 4.7 Objectives • I know that the genetic code stores the information needed by ribosomes to create proteins. • I can explain how information is transmitted from parents to offspring. • I know the difference between DNA and RNA. • I can explain the process of Transcription. (Where, what molecules are involved, why it’s important) • I can explain the process of Translation. (Where, what molecules are involved and why it’s important) 4.8 Objectives • I can explain the process of DNA replication (when it happens, why it happens, how it happens.) 4.1 Introduction 4.1 Cellular Energy • All cells require ENERGY and INFORMATION. • Energy is required to perform chemical reactions. • The cell’s reactions break down NUTRIENTS to release ENERGY. • Information is required to make proteins from genes. Especially Enzymes. • Reactions are controlled by proteins called ENZYMES Check for Understanding • What two things do cells need? • What is a special protein that helps control chemical reactions? • What carries the information the cell needs to create proteins. 4.2 Metabolic Reactions 4.2 Metabolic Reactions • Two major types of metabolic reactions: Anabolism and Catabolism 4.2 Metabolic Reactions: Anabolism • Anabolism is the BUILD UP of LARGER molecules from SMALLER ones. • Cells join two simple sugar molecules called MONOSACCHARIDES into a larger molecule called a DISACCHARIDE Glucose Fructose Disaccharide CH2OH H H HO OH H O H H OH OH 4.2 Metabolic Reactions: Anabolism • When these two simple sugars combine, a WATER molecule is RELEASED WHICH IS WHY THE ANABOLIC PROCESS IS CALLED DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS H H OH HO Disaccharide 4.2 Metabolic Reactions: Anabolism Amino Acids to Proteins Monosaccharides to Di or Polysaccharides Nucleotides to Nucleic Acids Glycerol Head and Fatty Acid Chains OH = Hydroxyl Group Monosaccharide Polysaccharide: Glycogen Peptide Bond created by Dehydration Synthesis Lipid created by Dehydration Synthesis Nucleic Acid Created by Dehydration Synthesis Draw Figure 4.1: Dehydration Synthesis O 4.2 Metabolic Reactions: Catabolism • Catabolism BREAKS DOWN larger molecules into SMALLER ones. Glucose Fructose 4.2 Metabolic Reactions: Catabolism • The process that breaks down carbohydrates by splitting a LARGE molecule is called O HYDROLYSIS. H H H H O 4.2 Metabolic Reactions: Catabolism • Hydrolysis occurs primarily during DIGESTION. Draw Figure 4.1: Hydrolysis O Check for Understanding • Anabolism = _______________ molecules • Catabolism = ________________molecules. • Dehydration synthesis is an example of ___________________. • Hydrolysis is an example of ________________. • How does dehydration synthesis work? • How does hydrolysis work? • If I wanted to build a polymer what chemical reaction would I use? • If I wanted to break down a polymer, say during digestion, what chemical reaction would I use? • Removing a water = _______________________. • Adding a water = _________________________. 4.3 Control of Metabolic Reactions 4.3 Control of Metabolic Reactions • Since the temperature in cells are usually too MILD to adequately promote reactions, ENZYMES make them possible. 4.3 Control of Metabolic Reactions • Enyzmes work by LOWERING the amount of ENERGY called ACTIVATION ENERGY, required to start these reactions 4.3 Control of Metabolic Reactions 4.3 Control of Metabolic Reactions • Each enzyme is very specific and can only act on one particular chemical molecule, called a SUBSTRATE. • The ability to identify it’s SUBSTRATE depends on the SHAPE of the enzyme molecule. • Where the enzyme-substrate complex meet is called the ACTIVE SITE Draw Figure 4.4 Denaturation of Protein Cofactor/Coenzyme 4.3 Control of Metabolic Reactions • When exposed to heat, radiation, electricity, etc., an enzyme shape can twist and that is called DENATURATION • Some ENZYMES are INACTIVE until they combine with a COFACTOR or a COENZYME Check for understanding • Can you label the parts of the enzymesubstrate complex. • How do enzymes speed up chemical reactions? • What does it mean to be specific? (think lock and key) • What are four things that can denature a protein? • How do cofactors and enzymes interact? 4.4 Energy for Metabolic Reactions 4.4 Energy for Metabolic Reactions • Energy is the ability to do WORK. • Forms of energy include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. KINETIC POTENTIAL MECHANICAL THERMAL CHEMICAL ELECTRICAL SOUND LIGHT NUCLEAR 4.4 Energy for Metabolic Reactions • Chemical Energy is stored in the BONDS between atoms and molecules and IS RELEASED when these bond are BROKEN. • The process that cells use to break down GLUCOSE molecules is called OXIDATION. 4.4 Energy for Metabolic Reactions Burning • Requires large amount of energy to get started. • Energy released as heat and light Oxidation • Enzymes reduce amount of energy needed (coupons) • Energy carrying molecules (NADH and FAD) capture about ½ of the energy and use it to make new chemical bonds. • The rest is released as heat Cellular Respiration • The process that cells use to break down GLUCOSE molecules is called CELLULAR RESPIRATION. • The main purpose of cellular respiration is to release the energy stored in the chemical bonds of glucose and use that energy to create ATP 4.4 Energy for Metabolic Reactions ATP – The Battery of Life Students will be able to describe the structure and properties of ATP and how it provides energy for the cell. ATP • *ATP = Adenosine triphosphate • *ATP is a molecule that acts like a charged chemical battery. Our body uses the energy in ATP to power itself, and then recharges it. Tri phosphate = three phosphates Adenosine = adenine + ribose ATP • The Energy our body uses is stored in the bond between the 2nd and 3rd phosphate Using ATP When our body needs energy, it breaks the bond between the 3rd and 2nd phosphate and becomes Adenosine Diphosphate. Energy ATP ADP + Pi + Energy • ADP *ADP = Adenosine Diphosphate *ADP is a molecule that acts like an uncharged chemical battery. Our body needs to supply energy from the sun or food to recharge it into ATP Energy Diphosphate = 2 phosphates Adenosine = adenine + ribose ATP and ADP ADP ATP • Charged Battery • Not Charged Battery Tri phosphate = three phosphates Diphosphate = 2 phosphates Adenosine = adenine + ribose Adenosine = adenine + ribose Charging ADP into ATP • Attaching a third phosphate to ADP requires energy. Living things get this energy from the sun or from food. ADP + Pi + Energy ATP ATP and ADP Cycle • ATP and ADP cycle - the process of cells breaking down ATP into ADP for energy, and then recharging ADP into ATP using energy from the sun or from food. Charging up energy Energy from Sunlight or Food ATP Charged Battery ATP ADP + Pi + Energy ADP Uncharged Battery ADP + Pi + Energy ATP Using up energy Energy used by the cell Energy ADP + Pi + Energy ATP ATP Charged Battery Charging up energy Using up energy Energy used by the cell Energy from Sunlight or Food Energy ADP Uncharged Battery ADP + Pi + Energy ATP ATP Charged Battery ADP + Pi + Energy ATP Energy used by the cell Energy from Sunlight or Food ADP Uncharged Battery ADP + Pi + Energy ATP ATP Production • The majority of ATP production occurs in the Mitochondria. The Mitochondria Students will be able to label and know the parts of the mitochondria Mitochondria • An organelle found in eukaryotic plant and animal cells. • Creates energy by breaking down sugar into ATP. Mitochondria in cells Anatomy of a Mitochondria Anatomy of a Mitochondria • Outer Membrane • Membrane created after endosymbiosis • Inner Membrane • Original membrane before endosymbiosis • *Matrix • Fluid that fills the mitochondria • *Cristae • Folds of the inner membrane Phases of Cellular Respiration Students will be able to label and know the parts of the mitochondria Cellular Respiration • There are two types of cellular respiration: • Anaerobic • No oxygen is required • Aerobic • Oxygen is required Cellular Respiration • Cellular Respiration occurs in three phases: • Glycolysis • Occurs in cytoplasm • Anaerobic • Krebs’s/Citric Acid Cycle • Occurs in mitochondria • Aerobic • Electron Transport Chain • Occurs in mitochondria • Aerobic Phase 1: Glycolysis • Glycolysis = Splitting or Breaking Glucose • It costs 2 ATP to break Glucose • 6 carbons sugar GLUCOSE is broken down into 2 3-Carbon Pyruvic Acid Molecules • Breaking Glucose also releases 4 ATP and High energy electrons. Electron carriers • Oxidation: When a molecule loses electrons during a chemical reaction. Electron carriers • Molecules called Electron carriers, catch the electrons released during glycolysis and take them to the electron transport chain. • The two electron carriers used in Cellular respiration are • NAD+ NADH • FAD FADH2 NAD+ e e NAD NADH NAD-+ H+ Electron Carrier e NAD+ Without Electrons e H+ NADH With Electrons FAD e e H+ H+ --2 FAD FADH 2 FAD e e H+ H+ FAD FADH2 Without Electrons With Electrons Glycolysis: The process of breaking sugar Occurs in the cytoplasm. ANAEROBIC AT ADP AT ADP P P Glucose • Input • 1 glucose molecule • 2 NAD+ • 2 ATP NADH • Output • 4 ATP • 2 NADH • 2 Pyruvic Acids NAD+ NAD+ ATP ATP ATP ATP 4 ATP NADH 2 NADH Pyruvic Acid Pyruvic Acid 2 Pyruvic Acids Where Does Everything Go? • ATP = stays in cytoplasm • Pyruvates= goes to the matrix of the mitochondria • NADH = goes to the matrix of the mitochondria ATP ATP ATP ATP Cytoplasm Pyruvic Acid Matrix of Pyruvic Acid NADH Matrix of NADH How Much ATP is made? • Glycolysis spends: • Glycolysis produces: ATP Total Net gain of glycolysis is ATP -2 ATP 4 2 Krebs’s/Citri c Acid Cycle Pyruvic Acid Acetyl CoA Coenzyme The 3-Carbon PYRUVIC ACID enter THE MITOCHONDRIA. Each loses a CARBON and combines with a coenzyme to make ACETYL COENZYME A. Carbon Dioxide CO2 Carbon Dioxide CO2 A coenzyme changes Pyruvic Acid into Acetyl Coenzyme A and 2 Carbon Dioxides are released. • Acetyl CoA combines with 4-carbon oxaloacetic acid to form 6 Carbon CITRIC acid. Each turn removes 2 Carbons as CO2 and one ATP Krebs’s/Citric Acid Cycle Input: Output: 2 Acetyl CoA 6 Carbon Dioxides (CO2) 8 NADH 2 ATP 2 FADH2 Acetyl Co CoAA Occurs in the Matrix of the Mitochondria AEROBIC NADH NADH Carbon Dioxide CO2 Carbon Dioxide CO2 NADH NADH NADH FADH2 NADH Carbon Dioxide CO2 FADH2 ATP ATP NADH NADH Carbon Dioxide CO2 Exhaled by body Output Input: 2 Acetyl CoA 6 Carbon Dioxide 8 NADH 2 FADH2 2 ATP Acetyl Co A NADH FADH2 Krebs Cycle Acetyl Co A ATP Back to the cytoplasm Electron Transport Chain How much ATP is made? • Glycolysis Net Gain: • Krebs Cycle produces: 2 ATP 2 ATP Total ATP: 4 ATP Electron Transport Chain • Input • FADH2 • NADH • Output • • • • 6 H2O 32-34 ATP NAD+ FAD Occurs in the Cristae (inner membrane) of the Mitochondria AEROBIC Electron Transport Chain 1. NADH and FADH2 lose their Hydrogen Ions and Electrons and return to NAD+ and FAD 2. The electrons from FADH2 and NADH travel through the electron transport chain. 1. This provides energy that pulls hydrogen ions out of the matrix. Electron Transport Chain 3. The hydrogen ions return back to the matrix via ATP synthase. 1. Every time a hydrogen ion goes through ATP Synthase an ADP and a phosphate combine to create an ATP. 4. The electrons combine with two hydrogen ions and an oxygen to create water. Space in between the inner and outer membrane H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ ELECTRON H+ H+ ATP SYNTHASE Chain Transport H+ ATP ATP ATP NADH NAD+ H+ H+ Matrix H+ H+ FADH2 H+ H Water H+ H+ H+ H+ ATP SYNTHASE • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3y1dO4nNaKY What happens to the electrons? O + 2e- + 2H+ H2O Oxygen + 2 electrons +2 Hydrogen Ions e- e- Water ee- e- O e- e- e- e- e- H H Where does everything go? • NAD+ and FAD go back to the cytoplasm and the matrix to be recharged into NADH and FADH2. • ATP returns to the cytoplasm to be used. • Water exits the body. H O ATP H Out of the body Cytoplasm NAD+ FAD Matrix and or Cytoplasm How much ATP is made? • Glycolysis Net Gain: • Krebs Cycle produces: • Electron Transport Chain produces: 2 ATP 2 ATP 32-34 ATP • Total ATP: 36-38 ATP 4.5 Metabolic Pathways Metabolic Pathways • A sequence of enzyme-controlled reactions is called a METABOLIC PATHWAY. • The rate of a metabolic pathway is determined by a REGULATORY ENZYME. • The first enzyme in a series is called the RATE LIMITING ENZYME Carbohydrate Pathway (cellular respiration) • Cellular Respiration – The breakdown of glucose to release energy in the form of ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) • Step 1 (Glycolysis) • Anaerobic – no oxygen • Occurs in Cytosol • Starts: • Glucose + 2 ATP Glycolysis Pyruvic acid (pyruvate) • Ends 4 ATP (2 Net ATP) Electrons carried by NADH Carbohydrate Pathway (cellular respiration) • Step 2 (Krebs Cycle) • Occurs in Mitochondria • Aerobic – Oxygen present • Starts 2 CO2 4 CO2 • Pyruvic Acid (Pyruvate) Acetyl CoA Citric Acid Cycle • Ends 2ATP Electrons carried by 8NADH and 2 FADH2 Carbohydrate Pathway (cellular respiration) • Step 3 (Electron Transport Chain) • Occurs in Mitochondria • Aerobic – Oxygen present • Starts • Electron Carriers (NADH + FADH2) Electron Transport Chain Carriers (NADH and FADH2) • Ends 32 - 34ATP 6H2O Protein Pathway Proteins (Hydrolysis) Amino Acids Pyruvic Acid Acetyl CoA Krebs’s/Citric Acid Cycle Electron Transport Chain 2 CO2 4 CO2 2 ATP Electrons carried by 8NADH and 2 FADH2 32ATP 6H2O Lipid Pathway Lipids (Hydrolysis) Glycerol Pyruvic Acid Fatty Acids Acetyl CoA 4CO2 2CO2 Krebs’s Citric Acid Cycle Acetyl CoA Krebs’s Citric Acid Cycle 4CO2 2ATP Electrons carried by 8NADH and 2 FADH2 Electron Transport Chain 2CO2 Electrons carried by 8NADH and 2 FADH2 Electron Transport Chain 32ATP 32ATP 6H2O 2ATP 6H2O Proteins Carbohydrates Amino Acids Glucose Pyruvic Acid Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids can be changed into Pyruvic Acid. Once changed to Pyruvic Acid – the metabolic pathway is identical for proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids. Acetyl Group Krebs’s Citric Acid Cycle Electron Transport Chain Lipids Glycerol Fatty Acid Head Chain 4.6 Nucleic Acids Listen Nucleic Acids • Nucleic Acids are a macromolecule. • Monomer: Nucleotide • Polymer: Nucleic Acid • The nucleic acids most important to life are DNA and RNA Listen DNA Nucleotide Structure Phosphate Sugar Base Write 4.6 Nucleic Acids • DNA or DEOXYRIBO NUCLEIC ACID contains the instruction cells need to SYNTHESIZE enzymes and proteins. • Genetic information is passed from parents to child in the form of DNA MOLECULES from parent’s SEX CELLS. Write 4.6 Nucleic Acids • Directions for making particular PROTEINS are called GENES. • GENES instruct CELLS to synthesize the PROTEINS that control METABOLIC pathways. • A GENOME constitutes all of the DNA in a cell. Phosphate Phosphate Phosphate Deoxyribose Deoxyribose Deoxyribose T G Deoxyribose C A Phosphate Listen DNA Nucleotide Structure A denine Phosphate T hymine Deoxyribose Base C ytosine Guanine Listen Listen Listen DNA Structure Backbone Backbone Middle A T C A G T C G Listen DNA Structure Backbone Listen Backbone Middle A T C A G T C G Listen Write 4.6 Nucleic Acids • A DNA structure looks like a ladder in which the uprights represent the SUGAR and PHOSPHATE backbones of the two. • The organic base of a DNA Nucleotide can be: 1. ADENINE, 2. THYMINE, 3. CYTOSINE, 4. GUANINE • ADENINE will bond only to a THYMINE, and a CYTOSINE, will only bond to a GUANINE. • This is called BASE PAIRING • DNA twists to make a DOUBLE HELIX Listen RNA Nucleotide Structure A denine Phosphate Uracil Ribose Base C ytosine Guanine Listen mRNA • Messenger RNA Listen tRNA • Transfer RNA Listen rRNA • Ribosomal RNA RNA Types RNA Type Abbreviated Name Function Shape Location Messenger RNA mRNA Copy info from DNA and delivers it to ribosome Nucleus Ribosome Transfer RNA Delivers amino acids to ribosome Cytoplasm Ribosome tRNA Ribosomal RNA rRNA Part of the Ribosome Don’t need to know. Ribosome Write Write 4.7 Protein Synthesis Listen DNA as Information Listen Listen Alphabets and Information DOG CAT APPLE CAR GENES AIRPLANE SCHOOL Listen Listen Listen Listen DNA Alphabet Letters A T G C DNA Alphabet Words (Codons) A T G A C C C T G G G C Write Codons • Words of the DNA language can be found on mRNA. • We call these words Codons. • Codon: three nucleotides (bases) on mRNA A U G A U G G G C mRNA C U G Write Codons • DNA also has punctuation. • Start Codon (AUG) = Tells you when to start. • Stop Codon = (UAA, UAG, UGA) Tells you when to stop. A U G A U G G G C mRNA C U G Write Codons • The sequence of nucleotides (bases) determines what protein will be made. A U G A U G G G C mRNA C U G Write CENTRAL DOGMA OF BIOLOGY Listen CENTRAL DOGMA OF BIOLOGY DNA RNA Listen Transcription DNA mRNA DNA RNA Polymerase Listen Write TRANSCRIPTION: DNA RNA • Transcription: RNA polymerase reads DNA and copies the information onto an mRNA strand by base pairing. • The mRNA leaves the Nucleus and travels to a Ribosome Listen Codons and Anti-Codons • Transfer RNA delivers amino acids to the Ribosome, but how do they know which Amino Acids to transfer? • They use Anti-Codons Write Amino Acid An Anti-Codon is 3 nucleotides (bases) found on a transfer RNA. A U G Write Amino Acid Amino Acid Amino Acid Amino Acid U A C U A C C C G G A C A U G A U G G G C mRNA C U G TRANSLATION: RNA PROTEIN Write TRANSCRIPTION: DNA RNA • Translation: mRNA moves through the ribosomes. Anti-codons on tRNA base pair with codons bringing amino acids to the ribosome. • The ribosome binds the amino acids together to create a protein. Write DNA REplication DNA REPLICATION Listen Listen G1 Phase Telophase S Phase DNA REPLICATIO N Anaphase Metaphase Prophase G2 Phase Write Write DNA Replication • DNA Replication: The process of copying one’s DNA • DNA is copied in preparation for Mitosis and Meiosis • DNA Replication occurs during the S (Synthesis) phase of the Cell Cycle Listen Listen Listen Template Strand Complimentary Strands Template Strand Template Strand Template Strand Listen Listen Write DNA Replication • New strands of DNA splitting the double helix open and creating a new strand by base pairing. Listen Listen Listen Listen Listen HELICASE Listen Listen Listen Listen Listen