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Gildig 1 Behaviorism in Laymen’s Terms Holly Gildig, Fall 2005 Behaviorism was a movement in psychology and philosophy that focused on the outward behavior and disregarded the inward procedural and experiential aspects of life. It is a term that is very difficult to define. A variety of psychologists have attempted to define the term according to their own opinions and beliefs. Even though there have been many disagreements among behaviorists themselves, they all agree that it is observable, interpersonally comparable, and directly measurable (Uttal 165). Behaviorism is an objective approach to the fusion of psychology and biological sciences. It is not generally considered a philosophy. Instead, it is considered an attitude or doctrine that is rooted in realism and materialistic philosophy. Although behaviorism originated in the field of psychology, it has a much wider influence today. A behaviorist is someone who confirms psychological events in terms of behavioral criteria. Behaviorists believe that behaviors should only be studied if they can be observed and that all behavior is a learned habit. Based upon the belief that all behavior is learned, unwanted behavior can be unlearned. It is assumed that the mind reacts to a stimulus and the response to the stimulus can be measured. Keep in mind that the thousands of processes that occur in the mind during the Gildig 2 time of engaging a stimulus and then reacting is not considered in this observation and measurement process. Behaviorism teaches that man is just a machine that will respond to conditioning rather than using problem-solving skills, feelings, and thoughts to affect what actions are taken. The ethical consequences of behaviorism are that of taking away the responsibility, freedom, and dignity of man, and allowing others to shape who and what the man will become. This process is achieved by the experimenter’s controlling the rewards and consequences of another person. Over the past few years, behaviorism has changed from the belief that behaviors could be “targeted,” to a more relativistic and meaningful approach (Malone 85). Even though many different philosophers and psychologists had an impact on the progression of behaviorism, the writer will mention only a few of these individuals, focusing mainly on the people who seemed to have the greatest influence in America. As a learning theory, behaviorism can be traced back to Aristotle. The first actual behaviorists were Russian. Ivan M. Sechenov (18291905) dedicated his time to blending associationism and materialism, by which he determined that all behavior is caused by some sort of stimulation. Vladimir M. Bekhterev (1857-1927) referred to his field of study as “reflexology.” Reflexology was the objective study of stimulus-response connections. The only topics discussed were the actual behavior and the environment in which the behavior Gildig 3 occurred. Bekhterev discovered the association reflex, which Ivan Pavlov would later call the “conditioned reflex” (Boeree 1). The most famous Russian researcher in this field is Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849-1936), who started out studying for the priesthood and then switched his studies to medicine. He is best known for his work in classical conditioning. His most famous experiment involved the use of food, a dog, and a bell. Pavlov noticed that a dog would begin to salivate when it saw food. The food was the unconditioned stimulus and the salivation was the unconditioned response. These innate abilities did not have to be learned, they were already present. Pavlov began ringing a bell when the food was given. After a while, the dog began to associate the sound of the bell with the food that would appear. The bell then became the conditioned stimulus. This is called “Classic Conditioning” (Boeree 2). Pavlov also observed that once the dog learned to salivate at the sound of the bell, it would also salivate at similar sounds. He discovered that if the ringing of the bell stopped occurring when food appeared, the dog would cease the connection between the ringing sound and the food. It was very easy for Pavlov to reproduce the response if the connection was begun again. Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949) was considered a functionalist. He was began the process of setting the stage for an American version of Russian behaviorism. Thorndike was a psychologist. He worked on educational psychology Gildig 4 and the psychology of animal learning. He believed that if there were satisfying consequences then behavioral learning would be enhanced. Thorndike is best known for his experiments with the “puzzle boxes” he developed for studying the behaviors of cats. Felines would be placed in puzzle boxes; and, in order for them to escape, they would have to successfully perform specific actions to get the box open. He used positive, negative, and neutral responses in order to formulate a connection between the amount of time it took for the cat to get out of the box and the learning process that the cat had to go through. Eventually he formulated the “law of effect” (Uttal 8). Animals learn by trial and error or reward and punishment. Thorndike believed that a neural bond would form between a stimulus and a positive response. Learning would take place when these bonds were formed into patterns of behavior (Uttal 8). John Broadus Watson (1878-1958) is the founder of American Behaviorism. He studied philosophy, psychology, and neurophysiology. He was the first American psychologist to use Ivan Pavlov’s ideas. Watson proposed a simple view of psychology that proved to be enticing to the American people (Staddon 22) because it was easy for them to understand and acknowledge. Watson believed that humans were born with few reflexes and emotional reactions. He thought that all other behaviors were established through associating a stimulus to a response through conditioning. According to Watson, if you studied Gildig 5 your neighbor, you would quickly develop reasons for his behavior and if a particular stimulus were introduced, the neighbor would behave in a predictable way (Watson, 11). In 1920, Watson designed an experiment to study the effects of classical conditioning on a human infant. Little Albert, a 9-month old baby, was exposed to a white rat. Initially the child showed no fear of the rat. Once the baby began playing with the rat, Watson would hit a hammer against a steel bar. Little Albert began to associate the white rat with the loud noise that scared him. Eventually the baby began to cry at the sight of the rat rather than the noise. Over time, the baby carried the phobia to other objects such as a rabbit, a fur coat, and a Santa Claus mask (Watson & Rayner). Albert was never “deconditioned” because his mother and he moved away. It is unclear as to what happened to Little Albert. Although Watson’s techniques would be considered unethical in today’s society, this was the first study to show that an emotional reaction could be classically conditioned. According to Watson, psychology is, in essence, the science of stimulus and response. A well-known quotation by John B. Watson is: Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select-doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors. I am going beyond my facts and I admit it, but so have the advocates of the contrary and they have been doing it for many thousands of years. (Hamachek 1990) Gildig 6 Watson put a strong emphasis on how nurturing contributes to human development. He believed that parents had to instill good habits in order for the children to grow into productive and responsible adults. A critic of Watson’s brand of behaviorism was William McDougall (18711938). In 1924, John Watson and William McDougall participated in a debate at the Psychology Club meeting in Washington, DC. The audience of the debate voted McDougall the winner, but John Watson won the support of American psychology. McDougall was considered a hereditarian; meaning he promoted psychology based upon instincts (Boeree 5). McDougall and his theories had been largely forgotten until recently. Due to the rise in the study of genetics and evolutionary psychology, McDougall’s ideas are being readdressed. E. C. Tolman (1886-1959) also criticized the lengths to which behaviorists had progressed. He did appreciate the behaviorists’ strides in making psychology into a true objective science; he just felt that some of the forefathers of behaviorism had gone too far with their ideas. Tolman believed that the study of behavior should be focused on purposeful, goal-directed behaviors. He believed that animals were able to advance through a variety of cognitive processes. E. C. Tolman is considered one of the precursors of the cognitive movement that is so prevalent today (Staddon 17). Gildig 7 One of the most influential psychologists is B. F. Skinner (1904-1990). Skinner was impressed with the effects of reinforcement and the relative effects on behavior. Even though Skinner was strongly influenced by John Watson, he focused his studies on operant behavior (voluntary behaviors used in operating on the environment). His entire system of study is based on operant conditioning (Blackman 113). Operant conditioning takes place when an organism proceeds through its environment reacting to various stimuli. The particular stimulus is called the “reinforcing stimulus,” or “reinforcer.” The stimulus will increase or decrease the operant, or behavior that was occurring just before the reinforcer. In other words, the behavior is followed by a consequence. The consequence influences the repetition of the behavior in the future (Boeree 10). Skinner is most famous for his development of the “Skinner Box.” This was a maze in which a rat had to push a bar in order to receive a food pellet. Skinner used positive reinforcement to reward the rats for a particular behavior. Once the food was stopped, the rat began to distance itself from pushing the bar. If no food was being received there was no point in pushing down the bar. According to Skinner, a behavior followed by a reinforcing stimulus results in that behavior’s occurring in the future. Vice-versa, a behavior no longer followed by a reinforcing Gildig 8 stimulus results in that behavior’s decreasing over time. Skinner advocated the use of positive reinforcement rather than negative (Blackman 127). In order to increase the complexity of behaviors studied, Skinner responded with the theory of shaping. When one of Skinner’s daughters was very young he used shaping, a method of successive approximations, on her in order to achieve the desired behavior (Boeree 11). The little girl was afraid to go down a slide. Skinner put her on the end of the slide and asked her to jump down. He then showered the girl with praise. Gradually he moved her higher up the slide. Each time she slid down, he would praise her for the behavior. Eventually, the little girl would slide down from the top and jump off once she reached the bottom. He reinforced her behavior only slightly by expecting a little and giving praise. Once established, he gradually increased his expectations toward the desired behavior. He would move her up the slide and praise her each time she reached the bottom. In order to reduce unwanted behavior, Skinner would “not notice” inappropriate behavior (Blackman 127). Therefore, a search for a new behavior would begin. If the behavior were appropriate, it would be acknowledged and reinforced in some way. “For Skinner, the dependant variable in operant research was the absolute response rate of the free-operant response” (Zuriff 367). A major contribution by Skinner was the possible betterment of an ailing world. Gildig 9 The main attacks, against behaviorism itself, focus on the scientific approach related to psychology (Amsel 24). Many of the reactions from the opposition are against Skinner’s environmentalism and determinism. Many believe that the theory of behaviorism has failed because it is not comprehensive (Amsel 25). Basically, there is no denying that behaviorism exists. The opposition believes that behaviorism can only exist if it is limited to certain areas of psychology. It is also believed that utilizing the ideas of behaviorism can improve the treatment of neurosies and phobias. It was very refreshing for the writer to learn that Skinner believed that his work was not above criticism. Skinner believed that laboratory practices, concepts, and principles needed to be continuously examined. He just did not see the need to argue with those who did things differently (Hall 12). Beneficial applications of concepts like positive reinforcement were accepted by some of those who disagreed with Skinner’s belief in behaviorism (Nye 135). Some procedures and ideas of Skinner’s can be utilized without becoming a “follower” of a behaviorist. Behaviorism has become an important aspect in present day education. Behaviorists believe a child to be highly programmed before starting school. The child has been exposed to parents, siblings, peers, and television before the age of five. This programming may have been learned acceptable behavior, whereas some of the programming may have been unacceptable behavior (Ozmon & Craver 213). Gildig 10 In the past, the main goal of a behaviorist was to change undesirable behavior of students through the use of positive and negative methods in order to make them behave. According to the behaviorist point of view, a teacher had to determine what he/she wanted his/her classes to be like and then implement a plan in order to achieve this goal (McEwan 99). During the past few years, the understanding of brain functions, psychology, sociological factors, and pedagogy has increased. As a result of this increase in knowledge, the management of behaviors in the classroom has moved away from isolated student behaviors to a wide range of problem-solving and decision-making activities. It is the concern about our society’s falling into a breakdown of personal responsibility and civility that has brought about this change (McEwan 99). Educators are now beginning to employ cognitive management techniques along with behavioral strategies. The writer, also an educator, believes in the use of student-centered learning in the classroom. The environment in the classroom should be educationally focused with a fair, supportive, and intriguing aspect. The teacher should utilize strategies that encourage problem-solving, thought provoking techniques and ideas, and the freedom for students to question concepts while managing the classroom so that all students have the opportunity to learn and express their thoughts and ideas. The writer also believes that there are aspects of behaviorism that are useful in the classroom. Gildig 11 Depending upon the age of students, they must be taught what the expectations are for the classroom and how to properly meet these expectations. Many children have learned inappropriate behaviors before they begin attending school; therefore, a teacher must relay to the student what is acceptable behavior while at school. It is the belief of the writer that the use of positive and/or negative reinforcers is helpful in teaching students what is acceptable. Of course there are behaviors that are expected, but there are situations that require the use of rewards and consequences. In conclusion, there have been numerous proclaimed behaviorists in the past decades, yet they have never been able to form a single school (Rachlin 3). Throughout the inception of behaviorism, it has been under attack from nonbehavioristic psychologists and philosophers. Through criticism, questions, and arguments, behaviorism has been able to establish some commonalities in theory and practice. Since it is human nature to feel free and able to make choices and decisions about our own lives, it is difficult to accept the fact that our behaviors are determined and controlled by genetic and environmental influences (Nye 134). The paradigm of behaviorism began as a way of formulating desired behaviors. It has since become one of the tools used in education as a way of improving classroom management and the educational process overall. Gildig 12 Works Cited Amsel, Abram. Behaviorism, Neobehaviorism, and Cognitive in Learning Theory: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1989. Blackman, Derek E. Seven Pioneers of Psychology: Behavior and Mind. London: Routledge, 1995. Boeree, George C. Behaviorism. Shippensburg University; Pennsylvania, 2000. Hall, Geoffrey. B F Skinner: Consensus and Controversy. New York: Falmer Press, 1987. Hamachek, Don. Psychology in Teaching, Learning, and Growth. 4th ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1990. Malone, J. C. “Advances in Behaviorism: It’s Not What It Used to Be.” Journal of Behavioral Education 12 (June 2003): 85-89. McEwan, Barbara, Paul Gathercoal, and Virginia Nimmo. Beyond Behaviorism: Changing the Classroom Management Paradigm. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1999. Nye, Robert D. The Legacy of B F Skinner: Concepts and Perspectives, Controversies, and Misunderstanding. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Co., 1992. Gildig 13 Ozmon, Howard A., and Samuel M. Craver. Philosophical Foundations of Education. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall, 2003. Rachlin, Howard. Behavior and Mind: The Roots of Modern Psychology. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994. Staddon, John. The New Behaviorism: Mind, Mechanism, and Society. Philadelphia: Psychology Press, 2001. Uttal, William R. The War Between Mentalism and Behaviorism. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2000. Watson, John B. Behaviorism. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 1998. Watson, John B. & Rayner, R. “Conditioned Emotional Reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3 (1920), 114. Zuriff, G. E. “Philosophy of Behaviorism.” Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 77 (2002), 367-371.