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What is comparative psychology? Anthropology Sociology Ecology Social Psychology Population Biology Evolutionary Psychology Behavioral Ecology Comparative Cognition Cognitive Psychology Paleontology Patterns of Behavioral Evolution Cladistics Behavior Genetics Molecular Biology Comparative Psychology Developmental Psychobiology Genetics Behavioral Neuroscience Behavior Analysis Behavior Modification Associative Learning Motivation Simple Model Systems Neural Network Models Neuroethology Developmental Psychology Comparative Neurology Cognitive Neuroscience Aristotle (384-322 BCE) Descartes (1596-1650) Lucretius (95-55 BCE) Lamarck (1744-1829) Plutarch (46-127 CE) Darwin (1809-1882) Aristotle and the scala naturae [384-322 BCE] Lamarck: inheritance of acquired traits [1744-1829] Lamarck and brain evolution: a teleological view STRUCTURE •Highly developed hypocephalon •Brain •Spinal cord •Rudimentary hypocephalon •Ganglionic cord •Special senses •Rudimentary brain •No hypocephalon •Separate ganglia •Nerves •No special senses •No CNS •No muscles LEVEL Man Mammals Birds Reptiles Fish Crustaceans Arachnids Insects Annelids Cirrhipeds Mollusks Radiarians Infusorians Polyps Plants FUNCTION •Attention •Thinking •Memory •Judgment •Will Inevitable increased complexity •Emotions •Inner feelings •Simple ideas? •Vision, touch •Instincts •Little or no learning •Emotions? •Irritability •No instincts •No intelligence •Irritability •No instincts •No intelligence Darwin and the phylogenetic tree [1809-1882] A phylogenetic tree Darwin’s contributions to comparative psychology Natural selection: differential reproductive success of alternative characters. (1) Phenotypic (and genotypic) variation (2) Differential reproductive success (3) Heredity Mental continuity: common ancestry provides continuity in morphology and function (1) Homology of brain organization (2) Deep functional similarities (3) Continuity of behavioral mechanisms Darwin’s research on mental representation in earthworms Percentage of Total Observations 100 90 80 70 60 Leaves f rom English plants 50 Leaves f rom f oreign plants 40 Leaves with narrow base If worms are able to judge, either before drawing or after having drawn an object close to the mouths of their burrows, how best to drag it in, they must acquire some notion of its general shape. This they probably acquire by touching it in many places with the anterior extremity of their bodies, which serves as a tactile organ. [...] If worms have the power of acquiring some notion, however rude, of the shape of an object and of their burrows, as seems to be the case, they deserve to be called intelligent; for they then act in nearly the same manner as would a man under similar circumstances. 30 Darwin (1881, p. 97). The formation of vegetable mould, through the action of worms, with observations on their habits. 20 10 0 Apex Middle Base Morgan’s method of double induction Method of double induction [1852-1936] Morgan’s canon of parsimony …any animal may be at a stage where certain higher faculties have not yet been evolved from their lower precursors; and hence we are logically bound not to assume the existence of these higher faculties until good reasons shall have been shown for such existence. In other words, we are bound to accept the principle above enunciated: that in no case is an animal activity to be interpreted as the outcome of the exercise of a higher psychical faculty, if it can be fairly interpreted as the outcome of the exercise of one which stands lower in the psychological scale. Morgan (1894, p. 59). Introduction to comparative psychology. Watson’s behaviorism [1878-1958] Psychology as the behaviorist views it is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior. Introspection forms no essential part of its methods, nor is the scientific value of its data dependent upon the readiness with which they lend themselves to interpretation in terms of consciousness. The behaviorist, in his efforts to get a unitary scheme of animal response, recognizes no dividing line between man and brute. The behavior of man, with all of its refinement and complexity, forms only a part of the behaviorist's total scheme of investigation. Watson's (1913, p. 158). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Fear learning in babies (1920s) Nature vs. Nurture There is no escape from the conclusion that nature prevails enormously over nurture when the differences of nurture do not exceed what is commonly to be found among persons of the same rank of society and in the same country. Galton (1883, p. 241). Inquiries into human faculty and its development. Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select—doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors. Watson (1924, p. 104). Behaviorism. The epigenetic approach to behavioral development Weiss, 1959. An epigenetic approach holds that all response systems are synthesized during ontogeny and that this synthesis involves the integrative influence of both intraorganic processes and extrinsic stimulative conditions. It considers gene effects to be contingent on environmental conditions and regards the genotype as capable of entering into different classes of relationships depending on the prevailing environmental context. In the epigeneticist’s view, the environment is not benignly supportive, but actively implicated in determining the very structure and organization of each response system. Moltz (1965, p. 44). Contemporary instinct theory and the fixed action pattern. Field and laboratory research Tool use in chimpanzees Self-recognition in pigeons https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Ga5o9cyg9A Spatial learning in rats https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o2TBicMRLtA https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TPazQm_hvT4 Levels of causal analysis Genes (next generation) Proximate causes Niko Tinbergen [1907-1988] Ultimate causes Inheritance PHYLOGENETIC HISTORY Reproductive success Selective pressures Behavior ADAPTIVE SIGNIFICANCE Sensory-motor Morphology Physiology Environment Hormones MECHANISM Cell metabolism Enzymes Morphogenesis Nutrients DEVELOPMENT Genes (regulatory, structural)