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BIG IDEA 1: EVOLUTION REVIEW Chapters 22-24 By Kelly Riedell Brookings Biology Image from BIOLOGY by Miller and Levine; Prentice Hall Publishing © 2006 Ability of an organism to survive and reproduce in a specific environment fitness How is evolutionary fitness different than fitness when exercizing at the gym? Evolutionary fitness is measured by reproductive success: number of offspring left behind; Fitness at the gym describes physical prowess and/or cardiovascular health Essential knowledge 1.A.1. b. Evolutionary fitness is measured by reproductive success. Essential knowledge 1.A.1.e . e. An adaptation is a genetic variation that is favored by selection and is manifested as a trait that provides an advantage to an organism in a particular environment. Any inherited characteristic that increases and organism’s chances to survive and reproduce. adaptation Give some examples of the above Webbed feet, camouflage, beaks, claws, speed, venom, living in groups, wings, blubber, flippers, scales, jaws, hair/fur, . . . Essential knowledge 1.A.1.e. An adaptation is a genetic variation that is favored by selection and is manifested as a trait that provides an advantage to an organism in a particular environment. By discharging electric sparks into a laboratory chamber atmosphere that consisted of water vapor, hydrogen gas, methane, and ammonia, Stanley Miller obtained data that showed that a number of organic molecules, including many amino acids, could be synthesized. Miller was attempting to model early Earth conditions as understood in the 1950s. The results of Miller's experiments best support which of the following hypotheses? (A) The molecules essential to life today did not exist at the time Earth was first formed. (B) The molecules essential to life today could not have been carried to the primordial Earth by a comet or meteorite. (C) The molecules essential to life today could have formed under early Earth conditions. (D) The molecules essential to life today were initially selfreplicating proteins that were synthesized approximately four Sample MC questions from billion years ago. 2015 Course and Exam Description Book posted on College board website 1.D.1: There are several hypotheses about the natural origin of life on Earth, each with supporting scientific evidence. SP 3.3: The student can evaluate scientific questions LO 1.28: The student is able to evaluate scientific questions based on hypotheses about the origin of life on Earth. Describe the main points of Darwin’s theory of evolution Natural variation in population provides basis for natural selection to act Overproduction of offspring forces competition for resources (struggle for survival) Organisms best suited to their environment will survive and reproduce; Other organisms die or leave fewer offspring (survival of the fittest/natural selection) Species alive today have descended with modification from ancestral species that lived in the distant past All organisms are united into a single “tree of life” (common descent) Essential knowledge 1.A.1: Natural selection is a major mechanism of evolution. a. According to Darwin's theory of natural selection, competition for limited resources results in differential survival. Individuals with more favorable phenotypes are more likely to survive and produce more offspring, thus passing traits to subsequent generations. Change in a population over time evolution Differences among individuals within a species Natural variation Preserved remains of an ancient organism fossil Islands that Darwin visited on his voyage on the Beagle that started him thinking about how organisms change over time Galapagos http://www.dwm.ks.edu.tw/bio/activelearner/19/ch19summary.html http://www.zwani.com/graphics/antivalentines_day/images/4heart.gif http://www.horton-szar.net/clipart/animals4.php One species of spotted skunk mates in late summer, and another mates in late winter. This is an example of a _____ pre zygotic reproductive barrier temporal isolation called _________ Essential knowledge 1.C.2: Speciation may occur when two populations become reproductively isolated from each other. a. Speciation results in diversity of life forms. Species can be physically separated by a geographic barrier such as an ocean or a mountain range, or various pre-and post-zygotic mechanisms can maintain reproductive isolation and prevent gene flow. Concept that each living species has descended with changes from other species over time Descent with Modifications Idea that organisms that are best suited to their environment will survive and reproduce Survival of the Fittest Image from BIOLOGY by Miller and Levine; Prentice Hall Publishing©2006 Type of distribution curve shown by polygenic traits Bell-shaped curve (OR normal distribution) GIVE AN EXAMPLE OF A PHYSICAL ADAPTATION Webbed feet, horns, antlers, claws, feathers, wings, camouflage, . . . . there are a million GIVE AN EXAMPLE OF A BEHAVIORAL ADAPTATION Nocturnal (coming out at night); Flying south for the winter, living in herds, “wagon train” defense; burrowing; hibernation 1.A.1.e. An adaptation is a genetic variation that is favored by selection and is manifested as a trait that provides an advantage to an organism in a particular environment When humans select and breed animals with certain useful traits from the natural variation in the population Artificial selection Process by which unrelated organisms independently evolve similarities when adapting to similar environments Convergent evolution Book published by Charles Darwin in which he proposed a mechanism and provided evidence for his Theory of Evolution “On the Origin of Species by Natural Selection” Process by which related organisms evolve differences when they are isolated in different environments Divergent evolution Naturalist who gave Darwin incentive to publish his ideas about evolution by writing an essay that described similar ideas. Alfred Russel Wallace French naturalist who hypothesized that organisms acquire traits during their lifetime through use or disuse which can be passed on to offspring Jean-Baptiste Lamarck Explain what was incorrect about Lamarck’s Inheritance of Acquired Traits hypothesis Genes determine which traits are passed on; unless genes are changed the acquired trait will only show in the original organism Explain what was correct about Lamarck’s Inheritance of Acquired Traits hypothesis First theory about evolution; Organisms do change and adapt to their environments http://www.dwm.ks.edu.tw/bio/activelearner/19/ch19summary.htm http://www.webweaver.nu/clipart/insects2.shtml Male fireflies of one species signal females of the same species by blinking their lights in a specific pattern. Other firefly species have different patterns. This is pre zygotic an example of a _____ reproductive barrier called Behavioral ______________ isolation Essential knowledge 1.C.2: Speciation may occur when two populations become reproductively isolated from each other. a. Speciation results in diversity of life forms. Species can be physically separated by a geographic barrier such as an ocean or a mountain range, or various pre-and post-zygotic mechanisms can maintain reproductive isolation and prevent gene flow. Name 3 kinds of evidence that supports Darwin’s THEORY OF EVOLUTION Fossils Geographic distribution Homologous structures Vestigial organs Embryology DNA Pseudogenes Artificial selection Can see natural selection work antibiotic resistance, new diseases, http://www.dwm.ks.edu.tw/bio/activelearner/19/ch19summary.html http://www.zwani.com/graphics/antivalentines_day/images/4heart.gif http://www.animalpicturesarchive.com/animal/ One species of garter snake is primarily aquatic, while another closely related species is primarily terrestrial. pre zygotic This is an example of a ____ reproductive barrier called ______________ isolation Habitat Essential knowledge 1.C.2: Speciation may occur when two populations become reproductively isolated from each other. a. Speciation results in diversity of life forms. Species can be physically separated by a geographic barrier such as an ocean or a mountain range, or various pre-and post-zygotic mechanisms can maintain reproductive isolation and prevent gene flow. The idea that all species, living and extinct, were derived from a common ancestor Common descent What Darwin called natural selection? Survival of the fittest Measuring lima beans and finding beans come in different sizes is an example of Natural variation ____________ The practice of breeding dogs to produce offspring with specific traits is an example of artificial selection _________________ A human’s appendix and a skink’s legs are examples of _______________ Vestigial organs How would Lamarck explain these giraffes with longer necks? Giraffes stretched their necks to reach food in tall trees and this acquired characteristic is passed on to their offspring. Image from BIOLOGY by Miller and Levine; Prentice Hall Publishing © 2006 How would Darwin explain these giraffes with longer necks? Populations naturally have individuals with different sizes of necks (natural variation) The ones with longer necks are better able to get food, survive, and pass on their longer neck alleles. Image from BIOLOGY by Miller and Levine; Prentice Hall Publishing © 2006 Evolutionary change on the smallest scale like new strains of HIV evolving from current HIV virus is micro evolution called ______ micro macro Which variable is used to represent the frequency of the dominant allele in a Hardy Weinberg problem? p 1.A.1.h. Mathematical approaches are used to calculate changes in allele frequency, providing evidence for the occurrence of evolution in a population. To foster student understanding of this concept, instructors can choose an illustrative example such as: • Application of the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium equation 4.C.3. c. Allelic variation within a population can be modeled by the Hardy- Weinberg equation(s). Image from BIOLOGY by Miller and Levine; Prentice Hall Publishing © 2006 According to this diagram, modern whales have a vestigial pelvis and femur. What does this suggest about ancestors of modern whales? Ancestors of modern whales had legs and walked on land 1.A.4.b.2. Morphological homologies represent features shared by common ancestry. Vestigial structures are remnants of functional structures, which can be compared to fossils and provide evidence for evolution http://www.angelfire.com/ab7/evolution12/evolutionclues.html The bones in the diagrams below Homologous are examples of____________ structures 1.A.4.b.2. Morphological homologies represent features shared by common ancestry. Vestigial structures are remnants of functional structures, which can be compared to fossils and provide evidence for evolution. Structures that develop from the same embryonic tissues, but have different mature forms Homologous structures Organs that are historical remnants of structures that had important functions in ancestors Vestigial organs The adaptations in species of finches that Darwin observed on the Galάpagos Islands were different shaped _____________ beaks Why did Darwin first hesitate to publish his ideas about evolution? His findings challenged fundamental scientific beliefs at the time A possible explanation for a set of observations or a possible answer to a scientific question hypothesis Change in the DNA sequence of an organism due to mistakes in replication or damage from radiation or chemicals mutation Who is the scientist that proposed the idea that forces which have been changing the Earth are still at work? Charles Lyell Who realized that human populations were increasing and said eventually there would not be enough food and space for everyone? Thomas Malthus Whales and wolves share a common ancestor, but have evolved to look very different. This is an example of _____________ evolution. divergent What do we call genes that have lost their function due to mutations? pseudogenes Tell one piece of evidence that suggests human chromosome #2 evolved by joining 2 smaller ancestor chromosomes. Banding pattern matches It has telomeres in the middle instead of just at the ends. It has an extra inactive centromere instead of just one. CREATE A CLADOGRAM FROM THIS DATA TABLE LANCET LAMPREY TUNA SALAMANDER TURTLE LEOPARD HAIR AMNIOTIC TETRAPOD JAWS BACKBONE Essential Knowledge: 1.B.2: Phylogenetic trees and cladograms are graphical representations (models) of evolutionary history that can be tested. SP 1: The student can create representations and models of natural or man-made phenomena and systems in the domain. LO 1.19: The student is able create a phylogenetic tree or simple cladogram that correctly represents evolutionary history and speciation from a provided data set. Give an example of homologous structures Human arm, bird wing, whale flipper Give an example of a pseudogene you learned about Vitamin C gene in primates, genes for “smell” in humans Who is the scientist that proposed an idea about evolution which prompted Darwin to publish his theory? Alfred Russell Wallace When lions prey on a herd of antelope, some antelope are killed and some escape. Which part of Darwin’s theory of evolution might be used to describe this situation? Survival of the fittest; natural selection Explain what was incorrect about Lamarck’s Inheritance of Acquired Traits hypothesis TRAITS ARE DETERMINED BY GENES; ACQUIRED TRAITS ARE NOT PASSED ON Explain what was correct about Lamarck’s Inheritance of Acquired Traits hypothesis LIVING THINGS CHANGE OVER TIME TO BEST FIT THEIR ENVIRONMENTS Another name for divergent evolution Adaptive radiation is ________________ What Darwin called “survival of the fittest” Natural selection _________________ Another name for “struggle for competition existence” is _______________ Darwin’s concept of evolution was influenced by all of the following EXCEPT A. Charles Lyell’s and James Hutton’s work which said there are forces shaping the Earth’s surface that have been happening for millions of years and are still happening B. specimens and fossils he collected C. his knowledge of the structure of DNA D. his voyage around the world E. Malthus’s ideas about how shortages of resources can negatively impact populations C. Darwin didn’t know about DNA! Whales and sharks are not closely related, but have evolved to have similar body shapes and fins because they live in similar environments. This is an example of _____________ evolution. convergent TELL THE CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH THE HARDY-WEINBERG PRINCIPLE HOLDS TRUE: LARGE population Random mating TED talksFive fingers of Evolution NO mutations NO movement IN OR OUT NO natural selection 1.A.1.g. Conditions for a population or an allele to be in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium are: (1) a large population size, (2) absence of migration, (3) no net mutations, (4) random mating and (5) absence of selection. These conditions are seldom met. All of these statements about the structure of human chromosome #2 provide evidence for evolution EXCEPT A. Its banding pattern matches the pattern seen on two smaller chimp chromosomes B. It has telomeres in the center, as well as at the ends C. It carries a functional gene for making vitamin C D. It has an extra non-functional centromere C. Humans have a nonfunctional vitamin C making gene, and its not on chromosome #2 Image from BIOLOGY by Miller and Levine; Prentice Hall Publishing©2006 Name the type of selection shown in the diagram below. Directional selection 1.A.4.b.2. Morphological homologies represent features shared by common ancestry. Vestigial structures are remnants of functional structures, which can be compared to fossils and provide evidence for evolution Traits controlled by two or more genes Polygenic trait Process by which related organisms evolve differences when they are isolated in different environments Divergent evolution OR Adaptive radiation Measuring lima beans and finding beans come in different sizes is an example of ____________ Natural variation Process by which unrelated organisms independently evolve similarities when adapting to similar environments or to solve similar problems Convergent evolution Stabilizing selection, individuals In _____________ near the center of a normal curve of distribution have higher fitness than those at the extremes Image from BIOLOGY by Miller and Levine; Prentice Hall Publishing©2006 1.A.4.b.2. Morphological homologies represent features shared by common ancestry. Vestigial structures are remnants of functional structures, which can be compared to fossils and provide evidence for evolution Changes in the allele frequency in a small population that are due to random chance and don’t follow the laws of probability Genetic drift Essential Knowledge 1.A.1.f. In addition to natural selection, chance and random events can influence the evolutionary process, especially for small populations. A change in a DNA sequence caused by a mistake in DNA replication or exposure to radiation or chemicals mutation 7 4 1 8 2 5 3 6 Essential knowledge 1.C.2: Speciation may occur when two populations become reproductively isolated from each other. a. Speciation results in diversity of life forms. Species can be physically separated by a geographic barrier such as an ocean or a mountain range, or various pre-and post-zygotic mechanisms can maintain reproductive isolation and prevent gene flow. All the genes, including all the different alleles, in a population Gene pool A situation in which the allele frequencies in a population do NOT change and the population does NOT EVOLVE Genetic equilibrium http://www.dwm.ks.edu.tw/bio/activelearner/19/ch19summary.htm lhttp://newhaven828.typepad.com/.a/6a00d8347ae50569e200e5538e3c2e8834-320 The copulatory organs of two insect species do not fit together. This is an example of a pre zygotic reproductive _____ barrier called ______________ mechanical isolation Essential knowledge 1.C.2: Speciation may occur when two populations become reproductively isolated from each other. a. Speciation results in diversity of life forms. Species can be physically separated by a geographic barrier such as an ocean or a mountain range, or various pre-and post-zygotic mechanisms can maintain reproductive isolation and prevent gene flow. Tell the 2 equations needed to solve Hardy Weinberg problems p + q = 1 P2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 The number of times a certain allele occurs in a gene pool compared to the number of times other alleles for the same gene occur Relative frequency 1.A.1.h. Mathematical approaches are used to calculate changes in allele frequency, providing evidence for the occurrence of evolution in a population. To foster student understanding of this concept, instructors can choose an illustrative example such as: • Application of the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium equation 4.C.3. c. Allelic variation within a population can be modeled by the Hardy- Weinberg equation(s). FROM: http://serranohighschoolapbiology.weebly.com/uploads/6/7/9/9/6799747/ap_biology_evolution_unit_practice_test_1.pdf Males of different species of the fruit fly Drosophila that live in the same parts of the Hawaiian Islands have different elaborate courtship rituals. These rituals involve fighting other males and making stylized movements that attract females. What type of reproductive isolation does this represent? A) habitat isolation B) temporal isolation C) behavioral isolation D) gametic isolation E) postzygotic barriers . Essential knowledge 1.C.2: Speciation may occur when two populations become reproductively isolated from each other. a. Speciation results in diversity of life forms. Species can be physically separated by a geographic barrier such as an ocean or a mountain range, or various pre-and post-zygotic mechanisms can maintain reproductive isolation and prevent gene flow. Tell two sources of genetic variation in populations Mutations caused by mistakes in copying DNA caused by radiation or environmental chemicals Gene shuffling during meiosis crossing over independent assortment Essential Knowledge 1.A.2. b. Phenotypic variations are not directed by the environment but occur through random changes in the DNA and through new gene combinations. Image from BIOLOGY by Miller and Levine; Prentice Hall Publishing©2006 In ___________ disruptive selection, individuals at the extreme ends of the normal distribution curve have higher fitness than those near the center of the curve 1.A.1.h. Mathematical approaches are used to calculate changes in allele frequency, providing evidence for the occurrence of evolution in a population. To foster student understanding of this concept, instructors can choose an illustrative example such as: • Graphical analysis of allele frequencies in a population In a population of squirrels, the allele that causes bushy tail (B) is dominant, while the allele that causes bald tail (b) is recessive. If 64% of the squirrels have a bushy tail, what is the frequency of the dominant allele? q2 = 1.0 - 0.64 = 0.36 q = √0.36 = 0.6 p + q = 1 q2 + 2pq +p2 = 1 p = 1.0 – 0.6 = 0.4 A = 40% 1.A.1.h. Mathematical approaches are used to calculate changes in allele frequency, providing evidence for the occurrence of evolution in a population. To foster student understanding of this concept, instructors can choose an illustrative example such as: • Application of the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium equation 4.C.3. c. Allelic variation within a population can be modeled by the Hardy- Weinberg equation(s). Image from BIOLOGY by Miller and Levine; Prentice Hall Publishing©2006 Name the type of selection shown in the diagram below. Stabilizing selection 1.A.1.h. Mathematical approaches are used to calculate changes in allele frequency, providing evidence for the occurrence of evolution in a population. To foster student understanding of this concept, instructors can choose an illustrative example such as: • Graphical analysis of allele frequencies in a population WHICH PATTERN of SELECTION IS IT? stabilizing disruptive directional Lighter colored peppered moths were more common in England prior to the Industrial revolution. As pollution increased, the darker colored moths were less likely to be eaten. Over time darker colored moths have become more abundant in the population. directional selection Image from BIOLOGY by Miller and Levine; Prentice Hall Publishing©2006 directional selection In ___________ individuals at one end of the normal distribution curve have higher fitness than individuals in the middle or at the other end 1.A.1.h. Mathematical approaches are used to calculate changes in allele frequency, providing evidence for the occurrence of evolution in a population. To foster student understanding of this concept, instructors can choose an illustrative example such as: • Graphical analysis of allele frequencies in a population If all the conditions of HardyWeinberg are met, what happens to the population? There is NO EVOLUTION Which variable is used to represent the frequency of the RECESSIVE PHENOTYPE in a population in a Hardy Weinberg problem? q2 Can all the conditions of Hardy-Weinberg ever be met? MOST OF THE TIME NO WAY! You can have small & isolated populations (no moving in or out) BUT. . . there is always non-random mating, mutations, & natural selection. So there is ALMOST ALWAYS EVOLUTION HAPPENING ! FROM: http://serranohighschoolapbiology.weebly.com/uploads/6/7/9/9/6799747/ap_biology_evolution_unit_practice_test_1.pdf Over evolutionary time, many cave–dwelling organisms have lost their eyes. Tapeworms have lost their digestive systems. Whales have lost their hind limbs. How can natural selection account for these losses? A) Natural selection cannot account for losses, only for innovations. B) Natural selection accounts for these losses by the principle of use and disuse. C) Under particular circumstances that persisted for long periods, each of these structures presented greater costs than benefits. D) The ancestors of these organisms experienced harmful mutations that forced them to find new habitats that these species had not previously used Essential knowledge 1.A.2: Natural selection acts on phenotypic variations in populations. a. Environments change and act as selective mechanism on populations. LO 1.5 The student is able to connect evolutionary changes in a population over time to a change in the environment. FROM: http://serranohighschoolapbiology.weebly.com/uploads/6/7/9/9/6799747/ap_biology_evolution_unit_practice_test_1.pdf Certain proteins of the complex motor that drives bacterial flagella are modified versions of proteins that had previously belonged to plasma membrane pumps. This evidence supports the claim that A) some structures are so complex that natural selection cannot, and will not, explain their origins. B) the power of natural selection allows it to act in an almost predictive fashion, producing organs that will be needed in future environments. C) the motors of bacterial flagella were originally synthesized abiotically. D) natural selection can produce new structures by coupling together parts of other structures. E) bacteria that possess flagella must have lost the ability to pump certain chemicals across their plasma membranes. . Essential knowledge 1.B.1: Organisms share many conserved core processes and features that evolved and are widely distributed among organisms today. a. Structural and functional evidence supports the relatedness of all domains. Darwin believed in the idea that evolution happened slowly over a long period of time called __________ gradualism Pattern of evolution in which long stable periods of little evolution interrupted by brief periods of rapid change Punctuated equilibrium The clan of “blue people” in Kentucky you learned about are descended from an immigrant who carried the allele for a mutant form of hemoglobin and settled in the area which has little contact with the outside. This is an example a kind of genetic drift called _________ founder effect A change in relative frequency of alleles in a population evolution WHICH PATTERN IS IT? coevolution adaptive radiation punctuated equilibrium divergent evolution mass extinction Horse evolution shows long stable periods of little evolution interrupted by brief periods of rapid change Punctuated equilibrium Biology by Miller and Levine Pearson Publishing WHICH PATTERN IS IT? coevolution adaptive radiation punctuated equilibrium divergent evolution mass extinction At the end of the Cretaceous period an asteroid hit the Earth causing the loss of many species including the dinosaurs Mass extinction http://www.biologycorner.com/worksheets/hardy_weinberg_problemset_key.html IN DRAGONS Wings = dominant; No wings = recessive Calculate the allele and phenotypic frequencies for this population. 1.A.1.h. Mathematical approaches are used to calculate changes in allele frequency, providing evidence for the occurrence of evolution in a population. To foster student understanding of this concept, instructors can choose an illustrative example such as: • Application of the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium equation 4.C.3. c. Allelic variation within a population can be modeled by the Hardy- Weinberg equation(s). 7/21= 0.33 q2 = _______ q = ____ 0.57 p = ____ 0.43 0.18 P2 = ____ 2pq = _____ 0.49 43% A = _____ 57% a = _____ 49% aa= ____ 18% Aa = ____ 33% AA = ____ Iamge from: file:///C:/Users/riedellke/Google%20Drive/FileBlimp/AP%20BIO/AP%20BIO%20Evolution/EXAMS/ap_biology_evolution_unit_practice_test_1.pdf Based on this tree, which two organisms are the most closely related? Goats and humans are more closely related because they share a more recent common ancestor Essential knowledge 1.B.2: Phylogenetic trees and cladograms are graphical representations (models) of evolutionary history that can be tested. b. Phylogenetic trees and cladograms illustrate speciation that has occurred, in that relatedness of any two groups on the tree is shown by how recently two groups had a common ancestor. http://images.encarta.msn.com/xrefmedia/aencmed/targets/illus/ilt/T014608A.gif WHICH PATTERN IS IT? coevolution adaptive radiation punctuated equilibrium divergent evolution mass extinction The Galápagos finches evolved through natural selection from a common ancestor into a wide variety of different looking species with different kinds of beaks Adaptive radiation (divergent evolution) Five new species of bacteria were discovered in Antarctic ice core samples. The nucleotide (base) sequences of rRNA subunits were determined for the new species. The table below shows the number of nucleotide differences between the species. Which of the following phylogenetic trees is most consistent with the data? Sample MC questions from 2015 Course and Exam Description Book posted on College Board website Essential Knowledge: 1.B.2: Phylogenetic trees and cladograms are graphical representations (models) of evolutionary history that can be tested. SP 1: The student can create representations and models of natural or man-made phenomena and systems in the domain. LO 1.19: The student is able create a phylogenetic tree or simple cladogram that correctly represents evolutionary history and speciation from a provided data set. WHICH PATTERN IS IT? coevolution adaptive radiation punctuated equilibrium divergent evolution mass extinction Hummingbirds have a beak just the right length to reach the nectar in a cardinal flower and as they feed their foreheads bump into the pollen structure. Cardinal flowers are red which hummingbirds can see, but bees can’t, and their pollen structure is at just the right height for the hummingbird to pick up pollen as it feeds. coevolution WHICH PATTERN IS IT? coevolution adaptive radiation punctuated equilibrium divergent evolution mass extinction Whales, sharks, and penguins all have streamlined bodies and fins/flipper for moving in water even though they belong in different animal groups (mammals, fish, and birds) Convergent evolution WHICH PATTERN IS IT? coevolution adaptive radiation punctuated equilibrium divergent evolution mass extinction Beaver Beaver NORTH AMERICA Muskrat Muskrat Beaver and Muskrat Capybara SOUTH AMERICA Coypu Coypu Beaver in North America and capybara in South America are closely related species living in very different environments that have evolved to look different over time. Adaptive radiation OR divergent evolution BIOLOGY by Miller and Levine Pearson Publishing A group of students summarized information on five great extinction events. The students are sampling a site in search of fossils from the Devonian period. Based on the chart, which of the following would be the most reasonable plan for the students to follow? (A) Searching horizontal rock layers in any class of rock and trying to find those that contain the greatest number of fossils. (B) Collecting fossils from rock layers deposited prior to the Permian period that contain some early vertebrate bones. (C) Looking in sedimentary layers next to bodies of water in order to find marine fossils of bivalves and trilobites. (D) Using relative dating techniques to determine the geological ages of the fossils found so they can calculate the rate of speciation of early organisms Sample MC questions from 2015 Course and Exam Description Book posted on College board website Essential Knowledge 1.C.1: Speciation and extinction have occurred throughout the Earth's history. SP 4.2: The student can design a plan for collecting data to answer a particular scientific question. LO 1.21: The student is able to design a plan for collecting data to investigate the scientific claim that speciation and extinction have occurred throughout Earth’s history. WHICH PATTERN IS IT? coevolution adaptive radiation punctuated equilibrium divergent evolution mass extinction The tortoises on the Galapagos islands share a common ancestor, but over time they have become adapted for obtaining food in different habitats on different islands by having different neck lengths Adaptive radiation OR divergent evolution FROM: http://serranohighschoolapbiology.weebly.com/uploads/6/7/9/9/6799747/ap_biology_evolution_unit_practice_test_1.pdf The rise of methicillin–resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) can be considered to be an example of artificial selection because A) humans purposefully raise MRSA in large fermenters in an attempt to make the bacteria ever–more resistant. B) S. aureus is cultivated by humans to replenish the soil with nutrients. C) humans synthesize methicillin and create environments in which bacteria frequently come into contact with methicillin. D) Humans are becoming resistant to bacteria by taking methicillin Essential knowledge 1.A.2: Natural selection acts on phenotypic variations in populations. d. Humans impact variation in other species. To foster student understanding of this concept, instructors can choose an illustrative example such as: • Artificial selection • Overuse of antibiotics LO 1.5 The student is able to connect evolutionary changes in a population over time to a change in the environment.[See SP 7.1] Similarities that result from CONVERGENT evolution are considered to be ____________ analogous structures. homologous analogous WHICH PATTERN of SELECTION IS IT? stabilizing disruptive directional Human babies born smaller than average are likely to be less healthy and less likely to survive. Larger than average babies are likely to have difficulty being born. The fitness of these larger or smaller weight babies is lower than averagesized babies so human babies tend to born of average size. Stabilizing selection 1.A.1.h. Mathematical approaches are used to calculate changes in allele frequency, providing evidence for the occurrence of evolution in a population. To foster student understanding of this concept, instructors can choose an illustrative example such as: • Graphical analysis of allele frequencies in a population Image from BIOLOGY by Miller and Levine; Prentice Hall Publishing©2006 Name the type of selection shown in the diagram below. Disruptive selection 1.A.1.h. Mathematical approaches are used to calculate changes in allele frequency, providing evidence for the occurrence of evolution in a population. To foster student understanding of this concept, instructors can choose an illustrative example such as: • Graphical analysis of allele frequencies in a population WHICH PATTERN of SELECTION IS IT? stabilizing disruptive directional A population of birds lives in an area where plants with medium sized seeds are wiped out by a fungal infection. Birds with unusually large or small beaks would have higher fitness than those with medium sized beaks. Over time the population splits into two subgroups; one that eats small seeds and one that eats large seeds. disruptive selection http://www.dwm.ks.edu.tw/bio/activelearner/19/ch19summary.html Mules produced when a horse and donkey interbreed are sterile. This is an example of a _____ post zygotic reproductive barrier called hybrid ____________ infertility Essential knowledge 1.C.2: Speciation may occur when two populations become reproductively isolated from each other. a. Speciation results in diversity of life forms. Species can be physically separated by a geographic barrier such as an ocean or a mountain range, or various pre-and post-zygotic mechanisms can maintain reproductive isolation and prevent gene flow. All of the following influenced Darwin except Lyell Mendel Hutton Malthus Lamarck Mendel Which variable is used to represent the frequency of the recessive allele in a Hardy Weinberg problem? q http://sisu.typepad.com/sisu/spongebob.jpg Sperm of one sponge species cannot penetrate the egg of a closely related species.This is an example pre zygotic reproductive of a _____ barrier called _________ isolation gametic Essential knowledge 1.C.2: Speciation may occur when two populations become reproductively isolated from each other. a. Speciation results in diversity of life forms. Species can be physically separated by a geographic barrier such as an ocean or a mountain range, or various pre-and post-zygotic mechanisms can maintain reproductive isolation and prevent gene flow. In the formula for determining a population's genotype frequencies, the 2 in the term 2pq is necessary because A) the population is diploid. B) heterozygotes can come about in two ways. C) the population is doubling in number. D) heterozygotes have two alleles 1.A.1.h. Mathematical approaches are used to calculate changes in allele frequency, providing evidence for the occurrence of evolution in a population. To foster student understanding of this concept, instructors can choose an illustrative example such as: • Application of the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium equation 4.C.3. c. Allelic variation within a population can be modeled by the Hardy- Weinberg equation(s). Evolutionary change above the species level including the appearance of major evolutionary developments like flight (EX: fish → amphibians) is called macro _________evolution Which variable is used to represent the frequency of the dominant PHENOTYPE in a population in a Hardy Weinberg problem? p2 In a hypothetical population of beetles, there is a wide variety of color, matching the range of coloration of the tree trunks on which the beetles hide from predators. The graphs below illustrate four possible changes to the beetle population as a result of a change in the environment due to pollution that darkened the tree trunks. Which of the following includes the most likely change in the coloration of the beetle population after pollution and a correct rationale for the change? (A) The coloration range shifted toward more light-colored beetles (diagram I). The pollution helped the predators find the darkened tree trunks. (B) The coloration in the population split into two extremes (diagram II) Both the lighter-colored & darker-colored beetles were able to hide on the darker tree trunks. (C) The coloration range became narrower (diagram III) The predators selected beetles at the color extremes. (D) The coloration in the population shifted toward more darker- colored beetles (diagram 1V) The lighter-colored beetles were found more easily by the predators than were the darker-colored beetles. Sample MC questions from 2015 Course and Exam Description Book posted on College Board website Essential Knowledge 1.A.4: Biological evolution is supported by scientific evidence fro mmany disciplines, including mathematics. SP 1.1: The student can create representations and models of natural or man-made phenomena and systems in the domain. Lo 1.13: The student is able to construct and/or justify mathematical models, diagrams, or simulations that represent processes of biological evolution. Which variable(s) is/are used to represent the frequency of the HETEROZYGOUS PHENOTYPE in a population in a Hardy Weinberg problem? 2pq 1.A.1.h. Mathematical approaches are used to calculate changes in allele frequency, providing evidence for the occurrence of evolution in a population. To foster student understanding of this concept, instructors can choose an illustrative example such as: • Application of the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium equation 4.C.3. c. Allelic variation within a population can be modeled by the Hardy- Weinberg equation(s). Mode of speciation induced when an ancestral population becomes split by a geographic barrier Allopatric “other country” WHAT’s the DIFFERENCE BETWEEN: Gene Flow and Genetic Drift? GENETIC DRIFT Changes in gene pool NOT related to natural selection vs Due to random chance Start a new population • Founder effect • Bottlenecks http://larryfrolich.com/Evolution/NaturalSelection/founder.jpg http://biology.gsu.edu/houghton/2107%20'08/Figures/Chapter22/bottleneck.jpg GENE FLOW Migration of alleles or genes from one population to another. http://www.umbc.edu/bioclass/biol100/powerpoints/lecture10/img03 4.jpg FROM: http://serranohighschoolapbiology.weebly.com/uploads/6/7/9/9/6799747/ap_biology_evolution_unit_practice_test_1.pdf All animals with eyes or eyespots that have been studied so far share a gene in common. When mutated, the gene Pax-6 causes lack of eyes in fruit flies, tiny eyes in mice, and missing irises (and other eye parts) in humans. The sequence of Pax-6 in humans and mice is identical. There are so few sequence differences with fruit fly Pax-6 that the human/mouse version can cause eye formation in eyeless fruit flies, even though vertebrates and invertebrates last shared a common ancestor more than 500 million years ago. The appearance of Pax–6 in all animals with eyes can be explained in multiple ways. Based on the information above, which explanation is most likely? A) Pax–6 in all of these animals is not homologous; it arose independently in many different animal phyla due to intense selective pressure favoring vision. B) The Pax–6 gene is really not "one" gene. It is many different genes that, over evolutionary time and due to convergence, have come to have a similar nucleotide sequence and function. C) The Pax–6 gene was an innovation of an ancestral animal of the early Cambrian period. Animals with eyes or eyespots are descendants of this ancestor. D) The perfectly designed Pax–6 gene appeared instantaneously in all animals created to have eyes or eyespots. Essential Knowledge 1.B.1: Organisms share many conserved core processes and features that evolved and are widely distributed among organisms today. SP 7.2: The student can connect concepts in and across domain(s) to generalize or extrapolate in and/or across enduring understandings and/or big ideas. LO 1.15: The student is able to describe specific examples of conserved core biological processes and features shared by all domains or within one domain of life, and how these shared, conserved core processes and features support the concept of common ancestry for all organisms. FROM: http://serranohighschoolapbiology.weebly.com/uploads/6/7/9/9/6799747/ap_biology_evolution_unit_practice_test_1.pdf Fruit fly eyes are of the compound type, which is structurally very different from the camera–type eyes of mammals. Even the camera–type eyes of molluscs, such as octopi, are structurally quite different from those of mammals. Yet, fruit flies, octopi, and mammals possess very similar versions of Pax–6. The fact that the same gene helps produce very different types of eyes is most likely due to A) the few differences in nucleotide sequence among the Pax–6 genes of these organisms. B) variations in the number of Pax–6 genes among these organisms. C) the independent evolution of this gene at many different times during animal evolution. D) differences in the control of Pax–6 expression among these organisms Essential Knowledge 1.B.1: Organisms share many conserved core processes and features that evolved and are widely distributed among organisms today. SP 7.2: The student can connect concepts in and across domain(s) to generalize or extrapolate in and/or across enduring understandings and/or big ideas. LO 1.15: The student is able to describe specific examples of conserved core biological processes and features shared by all domains or within one domain of life, and how these shared, conserved core processes and features support the concept of common ancestry for all organisms. FROM: http://serranohighschoolapbiology.weebly.com/uploads/6/7/9/9/6799747/ap_biology_evolution_unit_practice_test_1.pdf Pax–6 usually causes the production of a type of light–receptor pigment. In vertebrate eyes, though, a different gene (the rh gene family) is responsible for the light–receptor pigments of the retina. The rh gene, like Pax–6, is ancient. In the marine ragworm, for example, the rh gene causes production of c–opsin, which helps regulate the worm's biological clock. Which of these most likely accounts for vertebrate vision? A) The Pax–6 gene mutated to become the rh gene among early mammals. B) During vertebrate evolution, the rh gene for biological clock opsin was co–opted as a gene for visual receptor pigments. C) In animals more ancient than ragworms, the rh gene(s) coded for visual receptor pigments; in lineages more recent than ragworms, rh has flip– flopped several times between producing biological clock opsins and visual receptor pigments. D) Pax–6 was lost from the mammalian genome, and replaced by the rh gene much later. Essential Knowledge 1.B.1: Organisms share many conserved core processes and features that evolved and are widely distributed among organisms today. SP 7.2: The student can connect concepts in and across domain(s) to generalize or extrapolate in and/or across enduring understandings and/or big ideas. LO 1.15: The student is able to describe specific examples of conserved core biological processes and features shared by all domains or within one domain of life, and how these shared, conserved core processes and features support the concept of common ancestry for all organisms. Mode of speciation occurring as a result of a radical change in the genome of a subpopulation reproductively isolating it from the parent population (EX: polyploidy) sympatric “same country” The geographic distribution patterns of species that support Darwin’s theory biogeography http://ipm.ncsu.edu/cotton/InsectCorner/photos/images/Open_cotton_plant.jpg Two cotton species produce fertile hybrids but the next generation is infertile. This is an example of a post zygotic reproductive _____ barrier called hybrid __________ breakdown Essential knowledge 1.C.2: Speciation may occur when two populations become reproductively isolated from each other. a. Speciation results in diversity of life forms. Species can be physically separated by a geographic barrier such as an ocean or a mountain range, or various pre-and post-zygotic mechanisms can maintain reproductive isolation and prevent gene flow. Gene flow occurs when a __________ population gains or loses alleles when individuals move in or out of a population Kind of genetic drift in which a sudden change in the environment (ex: earthquake, tidal wave, fire) drastically reduces the size of population Bottleneck effect Experimental evidence shows that the process of glycolysis is present and virtually identical in organisms from all three domains, Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya. Which of the following hypotheses could be best supported by this evidence? (A) All organisms carry out glycolysis in mitochondria. (B) Glycolysis is a universal energy-releasing process and therefore suggests a common ancestor for all forms of life. (C) Across the three domains, all organisms depend solely on the process of anaerobic respiration for ATP production. (D) The presence of glycolysis as an energy-releasing process in all organisms suggests that convergent evolution occurred. Sample MC questions from 2015 Course and Exam Description Book posted on College board website Essential Knowledge 1.B.1: Organisms share many conserved core processes and features that evolved and are widely distributed among organisms today. SP 7.2: The student can connect concepts in and across domain(s) to generalize or extrapolate in and/or across enduring understandings and/or big ideas. LO 1.15: The student is able to describe specific examples of conserved core biological processes and features shared by all domains or within one domain of life, and how these shared, conserved core processes and features support the concept of common ancestry for all organisms. The increased chance of survival of individuals that are heterozygous for the sickle cell allele helps to maintain this deleterious recessive allele in populations that live in areas infected by malaria. This is called Heterozygote advantage Kind of genetic drift in which a population is drastically reduced in size often due to environmental disaster, the hunting of a species to the point of extinction, or habitat destruction which results in a new population with little genetic diversity Bottleneck effect Kind of genetic drift in which a few individuals become isolated from a larger population and establish a new population whose gene pool is different from the parent population Founder effect Essential Knowledge 1.A.1.f. In addition to natural selection, chance and random events can influence the evolutionary process, especially for small populations Essential Knowledge 1.A.1. g. Conditions for a population or an allele to be in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium are: (1) a large population size, (2) absence of migration, (3) no net mutations, (4) random mating and (5) absence of selection. These conditions are seldom met. Idea that allele frequency will remain constant unless one or more factors cause those frequencies to change Hardy-Weinberg Principle Essential Knowledge 1.A.1.f. In addition to natural selection, chance and random events can influence the evolutionary process, especially for small populations Essential Knowledge 1.A.1. g. Conditions for a population or an allele to be in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium are: (1) a large population size, (2) absence of migration, (3) no net mutations, (4) random mating and (5) absence of selection. These conditions are seldom met. http://www.dwm.ks.edu.tw/bio/activelearner/19/ch19summary.htm l http://www.animationlibrary.com Nearly all the embryos die when eggs of a bullfrog are fertilized artificially with sperm from a leopard frog. This is an example of a ____ post zygotic reproductive barrier pre post inviability called hybrid __________ Essential knowledge 1.C.2: Speciation may occur when two populations become reproductively isolated from each other. a. Speciation results in diversity of life forms. Species can be physically separated by a geographic barrier such as an ocean or a mountain range, or various pre-and post-zygotic mechanisms can maintain reproductive isolation and prevent gene flow. Populations of a plant species have been found growing in the mountains at altitudes above 2,500 meters. Populations of a plant that appears similar, with slight differences, have been found in the same mountains at altitudes below 2,300 meters. Describe TWO kinds of data that could be collected to provide a direct answer to the question, do the populations growing above 2,500 meters and the populations growing below 2,300 meters represent a single species? Explain how the data you suggested in part (a) would provide a direct answer to the question. Sample short answer question from 2015 Course and Exam Description Book posted on College board website Essential Knowledge 1.C.2: Speciation may occur when two populations become reproductively isolated from each other. SP 4.1: The student can justify the selection of the kind of data needed to answer a particular scientific question. LO 1.23: The student is able to justify the selection of data that address questions related to reproductive isolation and speciation. Sample short answer from 2015 Course and Exam Description Book posted on College board website http://apcentral.collegeboard.com/apc/members/exam/exam_information/219291.html Description of the appropriate kind of data and the appropriately linked explanation of its selection may include: Essential Knowledge 1.C.2: Speciation may occur when two populations become reproductively isolated from each other. SP 4.1: The student can justify the selection of the kind of data needed to answer a particular scientific question. LO 1.23: The student is able to justify the selection of data that address questions related to reproductive isolation and speciation. Examination of chimp and human karyotypes shows that chimps have 2 smaller chromosome pairs not found in humans; and humans have one larger chromosome pair (#2) not found in chimps. It has been suggested that human chromosome # 2 was formed by the end-to-end fusion of the two chimp chromosomes at some point in the past. If this is true, there should be some evidence that can be observed to support this idea. Use what you know about the STRUCTURE OF EUKARYOTIC CHROMOSOMES to MAKE THREE (3) PREDICTIONS about the structure of human chromosome #2 that would suggest “relatedness” between these chromosomes. COLOR OR ADD LABELS TO THIS DIAGRAM. “If this fusion explanation is true, then I would expect that . . . “ Essential Knowledge 1.C.2: Speciation may occur when two populations become reproductively isolated from each other. SP 4.1: The student can justify the selection of the kind of data needed to answer a particular scientific question. LO 1.23: The student is able to justify the selection of data that address questions related to reproductive isolation and speciation. “If this fusion explanation is true, then I would expect that . . . “ 1. BANDING PATTERNS of human chromosome #2 and chimp chromosomes should match up. (They do!) 2. DNA SEQUENCING- DNA/Genes for particular proteins/traits are in corresponding positions on the chimp/human chromosomes. (They are!) 3. TELOMERES- Eukaryotic chromosomes have telomeres on the tips to protect code from being lost during replication. If two chimp chromosomes fused, then there should be telomere sequences in the middle of human chromosome #2 where the fusion occurred. (There is) 4. If telomeres in middle of #2 come from fusion, then other human chromosomes that weren’t fused should NOT have telomeres in middle. (There don’t; #2 is only human chromosome with telomere sequences in middle) 5. CENTROMERES- Eukaryotic chromosomes have centromere regions to which spindle fibers attach during cell division. If two chimp chromosomes fused, then there should be 2 centromere regions on human chromosome #2. (There are; one is inactive!) THE END. . . or is it? EVOLUTION IS STILL HAPPENING See a video