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16.12 brief comms MH 9/12/04 5:07 pm Page 822 brief communications *Division of Neuroanatomy and Behaviour, Institute of Anatomy, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland †Division of Psychiatry Research, University of Zurich, 8008 Zurich, Switzerland ‡Animal Welfare and Ethology Group, Institute of Veterinary Physiology, University of Giessen, 35392 Giessen, Germany e-mail: [email protected] 1. Van Praag, H., Kempermann, G. & Gage, F. H. Nature Rev. Neurosci. 1, 191–198 (2000). 2. Würbel, H. Trends Neurosci. 24, 207–211 (2001). 3. Chapillon, P., Manneche, C., Belzung, C. & Caston, J. Behav. Genet. 29, 41–46 (1999). 4. Gärtner, K. in Proc. Int. Joint Meeting 12th ICLAS General Assembly and Conference & 7th FELASA Symposium, SECAL, Madrid 207–210 (1999). 5. Crabbe, J. C., Wahlsten, D. & Dudek, B. C. Science 284, 1670–1672 (1999). 6. van der Staay, F. J. & Steckler, T. Genes Brain Behav. 1, 9–13 (2002). 7. Würbel, H. Genes Brain Behav. 1, 3–8 (2002). 8. Van Loo, P. L. P., Van Zutphen, L. F. M. & Baumans, V. Lab. Anim. 37, 300–313 (2003). Supplementary information accompanies this communication on Nature’s website. Competing financial interests: declared none. Neurosurgery Functional regeneration after laser axotomy nderstanding how nerves regenerate is an important step towards developing treatments for human neurological disease1, but investigation has so far been limited to complex organisms (mouse and zebrafish2) in the absence of precision techniques for severing axons (axotomy). Here we use femtosecond laser surgery for axotomy in the roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans and show that these axons functionally regenerate after the operation. Application of this precise surgical technique should enable nerve regeneration to be studied in vivo in its most evolutionarily simple form. Femtosecond laser pulses provide high U peak intensities that reduce the energy threshold for tissue removal (ablation)3 and enable laser surgery to be carried out with a low-energy source4,5. (For methods, see supplementary information.) We successfully cut single axons inside C. elegans by using pulse energies of 10–40 nanojoules at the specimen and tightly focused, 200-femtosecond, near-infrared laser pulses. This results in the vaporization of axon volumes of about 0.1–0.3 femtolitres, assuming an average axon diameter of 0.3 micrometres (see supplementary information). Dyefilling of axotomized neurons confirmed that the observed axon gaps are not due to photobleaching, but to physical disconnection of the axons (see supplementary information). The minimum energy used is consistent with measured optical breakdown thresholds in transparent materials3,6. At these low energies,we would expect mechanical effects due to plasma expansion and shock waves to be significantly reduced5,6 with respect to other laser-surgery techniques that require much higher energies (for example,0.4 microjoules with 0.5-nanosecond pulses7).The use of pulses at a low repetition rate (1 kilohertz, 10 microwatts average power) should reduce heat accumulation and extended thermal damage to the environment. We were able to cut individual processes within a few micrometres of each other without damaging the nearby processes (see supplementary information). The D-type motor neurons in L4 larvalstage worms were selected as targets for laser surgery. These neurons have ventral cell bodies and extend circumferential axons towards the dorsal side; they form synapses to body muscles8. We cut the circumferential axons (labelled with green fluorescent protein9) at their mid-body positions, leaving the rest of the axon intact (Fig. 1a). Both ends of the severed axons initially retracted. Among 52 operated axons (in 11 worms), Axon regrowth (%) 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Behavioural response (%) b 100 80 60 40 20 0 a c Before After 6h 12 h 24 h None Partial Full 3h 12 h 24 h Figure 1 Femtosecond laser axotomy in Caenorhabditis elegans worms using 100 pulses of low energy (40 nanojoules) and short duration (200 femtoseconds) and a repetition rate of 1 kilohertz. a, Fluorescence images of axons labelled with green fluorescent protein before, immediately after, and in the hours following axotomy. Arrow indicates point of severance. Scale bar, 5 m. b, Statistics of axon growth 24 h after axotomy, based on fluorescence images (n52 axons). c, Time-course analysis of backward motion of worms following axotomy. Seventeen worms were scored blindly at different time points (for criteria, see supplementary information). Improvement in backward motion was graded as four levels from ‘shrinker’ behaviour (dark red) up to ‘wild type’ behaviour (yellow) in the hours following axotomy. 54% regrew towards their distal ends within 12–24 hours (Fig.1b).Axons that showed partial, aberrant, or no regrowth within 24 hours did not show further improvement over longer observation times (up to 36 hours). To evaluate functional recovery associated with nerve regeneration, we tested the behaviour of operated worms as it related to motor-neuron function. Loss of D-neuron function results in simultaneous contraction of dorsal and ventral body muscles (‘shrinker’ phenotype)10, which prevents backward locomotion. Operated worms (17 in total) showed this expected ‘shrinker’ phenotype immediately after axotomy (15 axons per worm), whereas sham-operated animals (6 in total) moved like wildtype worms. Remarkably, the locomotion of operated worms improved, approaching that of the wild type within 24 hours of surgery (Fig. 1c), indicating that the regenerated axons were functional (see movie in supplementary information). By contrast, the shrinker phenotype caused by laser ablation of D-neuron cell bodies did not recover after 48 hours (results not shown). The correlation of axonal regrowth with behavioural recovery in C. elegans indicates that these nerves must have regenerated. Femtosecond laser axotomy is a new technique that can be performed with 100% efficiency, sub-micrometre precision and high speed. As simple organisms such as C. elegans have amenable genetics, application of the femtosecond laser axotomy technique we describe here should help in the rapid identification of genes and molecules that affect nerve regeneration and development. Mehmet Fatih Yanik*, Hulusi Cinar†, Hediye Nese Cinar†, Andrew D. Chisholm†, Yishi Jin†‡, Adela Ben-Yakar*§ *Department of Applied Physics, Ginzton Laboratory, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA †Department of MCD Biology, Sinsheimer Laboratories, University of California, Santa Cruz, California 95064, USA ‡Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, Santa Cruz, California 95064, USA §Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, USA e-mail: [email protected] 1. Horner, P. J. & Gage, F. H. Nature 407, 963–970 (2000). 2. Bhatt, D. H., Otto, S. J., Depoister, B. & Fetcho, J. R. Science 305, 254–258 (2004). 3. Perry, M. D. et al. J. Appl. Phys. 85, 6803–6810 (1999). 4. Tirlapur, U. K. & König, K. Nature 418, 290–291 (2002). 5. Shen, N. Thesis, Harvard Univ. (2003). 6. Vogel, A. et al. Appl. Phys. B 68, 271–280 (1999). 7. Colombelli, J., Grill, S. W. & Stelzer, E. H. K. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 75, 472–478 (2004). 8. White, J. G., Southgate, E., Thomson, J. N. & Brenner, S. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 314, 1–340 (1986). 9. Huang, X., Cheng, H. J., Tessier-Lavigne, M. & Jin, Y. Neuron 34, 563–576 (2002). 10. McIntire, S. L., Jorgensen, E., Kaplan, J. & Horvitz, H. R. Nature 364, 337–341 (1993). Supplementary information accompanies this communication on Nature’s website. Competing financial interests: declared none. NATURE | VOL 432 | 16 DECEMBER 2004 | www.nature.com/nature 822 ©2004 Nature Publishing Group Supplementary Information “Axon regeneration in C. elegans after femtosecond laser axotomy” M. F. Yanik, H. Cinar, H. N. Cinar, A. D. Chisholm, Y. Jin, and A. Ben-Yakar Methods: The worms were maintained on standard NGM agar plates at 20oC. Axotomy is performed on L4 stage worms. For axotomy and following fluorescence imaging of axons, the worms were anesthetized for short periods (15 minutes) on agarose pads with 5 µl phenoxypropanol per 1ml agarose. Sham operated worms were also subject to the same procedure, but the laser beam was focused 5-10 µm distance away from the axons instead of focusing on them. The femtosecond laser axotomy technique is quite rapid. It takes less than a minute to find, position, focus and cut an axon. Including the time to prepare slides, anesthetize worms, cut 15 D-type axons, and recover axotomized worms, the entire process is completed within 10 minutes per worm. We found that with 40nJ pulse energy, the damage spot size is optimal so that we can focus the laser on the target easily and perform axotomy rapidly. We can cut axons with 100% success rate. Behavioral Studies: We scored behavioral recordings of axotomized and sham operated juIs76 animals for backward movements. By using criteria such as, number of backward waves upon each touch to the head, presence or absence of spontaneous backward movement, deviation from wild type sinusoidal movement, each movie was given a general score. All the movies were scored blindly for both experimental conditions and recording time. The scorings at multiple times were always consistent. Worms were recorded at (or around) 3, 12, 24, 36, 48, 54, and 60 hours after axotomy. 6 worms were sham operated and showed wild type behavior. 17 worms were axotomized and scored as follows: Score 1: No backward movement, animal shows shrinker behavior. Score 2: Animal can move back up to two waves. It uses segmental muscle contractions instead of sinusoidal ones. Score 3: Animal can move backwards more than two waves, but uses segmental moves instead of sinusoidal ones. Score 4: Animal can move backward four or more waves by using sinusoidal muscle contractions - WT behavior. before after Mercury Lamp Objective Lens NA=1.4 Tube Lens ICCD Filters Shutter Relay Lenses Regenerative Amplifier 200fs, 1kHz, 10-40nJ pulses at the sample Scanners Ti-Sapphire Laser λ ~ 800nm 200fs, 80MHz, 100pJ pulses at the sample Supplementary Figure 1: Experimental set-up for femtosecond laser axotomy. A tunable TiSapphire mode-locked laser (Coherent, “Mira 900”) produces 200 fs short pulses with a repetition rate of 76 MHz and 5 nJ energy. For axotomy, a regenerative amplifier (Positive Light, “Spitfire”) seeded by the Ti-Sapphire laser generates 1 mJ energy, 200 fs short pulses at 1 kHz repetition rate. The laser energy on the specimen can be precisely varied using two attenuators. Each attenuator involves an electronically controlled rotating half-wave plate that rotates the polarization of the laser beam and a cube beam splitter in which the intensity of the transmitted light depends on its polarization. A fast mechanical shutter is used to select the desired number of pulses for the ablation experiments. The laser beam is tightly focused inside the sample through an oil-immersion high numerical aperture objective lens (Zeiss 64×, NA=1.4). The fluorescence imaging system consists of a mercury lamp, and an FITC filter set. The excitation filter and the emission filter transmit wavelength ranges of 460-500 nm and 510-560 nm, respectively. The dichroic mirror reflects wavelengths smaller than 510 nm. A cold mirror is used to transmit the laser beam but reflect the fluorescence emission towards either an intensified camera (Roper Scientific, “PI-Max”) for two-photon imaging or an interline transfer CCD camera (Princeton Instruments, “Micromax”) for epifluorescence imaging. The resulting emission from the focal spot is collected by the tube lens and detected by the CCD camera (6.5 µm pixel size and 2×2 binning). A filter blocks the scattered laser light. A camera exposure time of 300 to 600 ms is used. Simultaneously with laser axotomy, the system can also perform two-photon imaging with a pair of piezo-driven mirrors that scan the laser beam. A relay-lens system with a pair of lenses (focal lengths of 75 mm & 160 mm) are used to image the center of the scanning mirrors to the back aperture of the objective lens to prevent laser beam displacement during scanning. This relay lens system also enlarges the laser beam to fill the back aperture of the objective lens and to achieve diffraction limited focusing. The inset on the right upper corner shows an example of femtosecond laser axotomy with 10 nJ pulse energy (200 fs duration, 400 pulses at 1 kHz rate). Fluorescence images of a D-neuron axon before and 10 minutes after axotomy are shown. The rightmost image shows a photo-disrupted region with 1.2 µm length. This indicates that a volume of a few femtoliters is ablated at the focal point. Assuming an axon diameter of 0.3 µm, we estimate that a volume of the axon less than 0.1 femtoliter (1.2 µm × π (0.15 µm)2 ) is ablated. Scale bar of the inset is 5 µm. The ventral part of the worm is towards the bottom of the image. Dye-filling Studies to Assess Axotomy, Specificity and Damage Extent: In order to test whether the observed axon gap after axotomy is simply due to photobleaching or not, we have stained phasmid neurons with DiO-green before cutting the dendritic processes that connects the cell body to the sensory ending. After cutting the dendrites of neurons, we have stained with DiI-red. While the axotomized neurons showed no red fluorescence (Supplementary Figure 2), their distal ends and the unoperated neurons were filled with DiI-red. Thus, although outside-connected distal stumps can take up the dye, they cannot pass it to the neurons due to physical disconnection. In DiO/DiI staining experiments, we can specifically cut one of the dendrites among two nearby dendrites (only few microns apart) while leaving the other dendrite completely intact (Suppl. Fig. 2). This experiment shows that not only the damage extent is less than a few microns, but also we can selectively cut nerve processes. a b Supplementary Figure 2. Axotomy of PHAR phasmid neurons. Prior to axotomy, two nearby phasmids have uptaken DiO-green dye. (a) After axotomy of one of the two nearby dendrites, they are visualized with FITC (green) filter. The other dendrite is not axotomized. (b) Worms are incubated in DiI-red dye. The phasmid whose dendrite was cut is not visible with red optical filter indicating that its dendrite is physically disconnected and the phasmid cannot update DiI-red dye. The other phasmid that was not axotomized fluoresces red. The scale bar is 5µm. The arrow is indicating the axotomized part of the dendrite. The tail of the worm is towards the right bottom corner of the image. GFP fluorescence photobleaching and recovery studies: We have also performed controlled photobleaching experiments with our setup by exposing cell bodies to laser pulses with 1-2 nJ energy at 1.0 kHz repetition rate. We have completely photobleached both touch and motor neurons, and observed that fluorescence signal could recover from complete photobleaching within 3 hours. The recovery duration is consistent with previously reported photobleaching studies using Argon Ion laser based confocal microscopy [11], which show that completely photobleached neurons are able to synthesize and recover GFP fluorescence within 3 hours. Furthermore, immediately after we photobleach all motor neurons, the worms can still move backwards exactly like the wild type. In the regime of the pulse energies (1040 nJ) we used in axotomy, the neurons never recover GFP fluorescence even after 6 hours, indicating that a permanent damage occurs instead of simple photobleaching. The worms also cannot move backwards. Furthermore, during photobleaching, the entire neuron loses its fluorescence intensity instead of the local laser spot that is being photobleached. This indicates that GFP molecules rapidly diffuse in and out of the photobleached spot, and that only a localized region cannot stay as photobleached. This is also another indication that the local gap observed after axotomy is not simply photobleached. Aberrated Growth Cases: For the 10-40 nJ energies we use for axotomy, we observe cases where aberrant growth or no-regrowth occurs, which is also suggestive of successful axotomy. If our observations were simply photobleaching, no aberrant growth should have been observable. In fact, operated axons mostly show a "de tour" extension. Movie: Behavioral response of an axotomized worm. The movie includes two parts: Part I shows an axotomized worm 3 hours after the axotomy. The worm can move forward like wild type. When we touch to its head, it attempts to move backwards, but it cannot move, instead its body segments shrink. Part II shows the same worm 24 hours after the axotomy. It is now able to move backwards with sinusoidal body motions when we touch to its head. All References including Manuscript & Supplementary Information: 1. Horner, P. J., Gage, F. H. Nature 407, 963-970 (2000). 2. Bhatt, D. H., Otto, S. J., Depoister, B., Fetcho, J. R. Science 305, 254-258 (2004). 3. Perry, M. D. et. al. J. Appl. Phys. 85, 6803-6810 (1999). 4. Tirlapur, U. K., König, K., Nature 418, 290-291 (2002). 5. Shen, N. (supervisor Mazur, E.) Ph. D. Thesis, Harvard University (2003). 6. Vogel, A. et. al. Appl. Phys. B 68, 271-280 (1999). 7. Colombelli, J., Grill, S. W., Stelzer, E. H. K. Rev. Sci. Inst. 75, 472-478 (2004). 8. White, J. G., Southgate, E., Thomson, J. N., Brenner, S.,Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. London. Series B, Biol. Scien. 314, 1-340 (1986). 9. Huang, X., Cheng, H. J., Tessier-Lavigne, M., Jin, Y. Neuron 34, 563-576 (2002). 10. McIntire, S. L., Jorgensen, E., Kaplan., J., Horvitz, H. R. Nature 364, 337-341 (1993). 11. Dwyer, N. D. et. al. Neuron 31, 277-287 (2001). 12. Venugopalan., V., Guerra III, A., Nahen, K., Vogel, A. Phys. Rev. Lett. 88, 07810314 (2002).