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Systems of Psychology A. Proto-systems emerge in the middle and late 19th century B. Influences on American Psychology (British Psychology) ... Early developments ... 1850-1930 1. Psychophysics 2. Differential Psychology 3. Structuralism 4. Functionalism 5. Gestalt Psychology 6. Behaviorism C. Developments 1930 -1960 1. Neo-Behaviorism 2. Developmental Psychology 3. Social Psychology 4. Biological Psychology - Neurobehaviorism D. Recent Developments ... 1960-Present 1. Information Processing 2. Human Factors 3. Cognitive Psychology 4. Neural Networks E. Central Controversies 1. h 2 ( Malleability) 2. Meaning 3. Associationist vs Holistic Approaches 4. Reductionism 5. “Theory” vs “Prediction” 6. Developmental accounts vs Static accounts Functionalism A. Founder : Wm James (Early 20th Century) … virtually all subsequent developments in N. Amer. Psychology can be traced back in one way or another to James. B. Not a coherent “school”. A set of working ideas or hypotheses … as James would have it! “Pragmatic” C. Focus on mental activity/events and biology but NOT reductionistic D. Empirical but not necessarily experimental in the Robt. Sessions Woodworth sense of that term E. Concerned with “adaptation” and individual differences (Darwin/Galton) F. “Purpositive” G. Often very “applied” H. Evolutionary/Developmental I. Often interested in instinctual behavior (Kantian) K. Tradition: 1. G. Stanley Hall ... founded lab. at Johns Hopkins/ APA / Pres. Clark Univ. 2. John Dewey ... (“Chicago School”) ... Moved to Columbia Univ. ... “learn by doing” 3. James Rowland Angell 4. Harvey Carr 5. James McKeen Cattell (“Columbia School”) ... Psychological testing 6. Robt. Sessions Woodworth ... study of motivation Watsonian Behaviorism A. Morgan’s Canon: “In no case may we interpret an action as the outcome of the exercise of a higher psychical faculty, if it can be interpreted as the outcome of the exercise of one which stands lower in the psychological scale.” However, Morgan supported idea of “emergent evolution”. B. Jacques Loeb (Univ. of Chicago) was one of Watson’s professors who rejected concept of emergent evolution arguing that all animal behavior and all types of “cognitive” explanations of behavior could be reduced to associative processes. C. Edward L. Thorndike LAWS 1. Law of Effect ... early version of “reinforcement” 2. Law of Exercise ... early version of “ habit strength” ... “connectionism” 3. Law of Instinct D. Pavlov ... “conditioned reflex” E. John B. Watson ( Travelers Rest/ Furman/ U. of Chicago/ Controversies) Is credited with establishing the school of behaviorism in 1913 while a professor at Johns Hopkins. 1. Was a functionalist who argued that animal behavior was the only legitimate topic of psychology. 2. Heavily influenced by Pavlov ... conditioned reflex replaced “associations” as fundamental principle of conditioning ... emphasis on “classical conditioning” 3. All “mental” activity can be translated into terms of conditioned behaviors ... “overt” and “covert” behaviors (e.g., thinking could be viewed as “covert or inner speech”). Cognition was seen as perceptual motor responding. F. Contributions of Watsonian Behaviorism 1. Psychology is the science of publicly observable animal behavior 2. The purpose of psychology is to “predict” and “control” behavior ... psychology is atheoretical ... “inductivist” 3. Emphasis on classical conditioning ... S-R psychology 4. Reduces Psychology to “learning” and “conditioning” 5. Tended to be an anti-reductionist 6. Rejects James’ idea that psychology is about “consciousness” and James’ eclectic view of psychology 7. Rejects Thorndike’s law of effect 8. Promotes “experimental” psychology 9. By 1930’s referred to by some as “naive behaviorism” 10. “Free samples”, “Coffee Break”, Candy at supermarket checkouts! G. Tradition: The Neo-Behaviorist and Radical Behaviorists Neo-Behaviorism A. Hypothetico-Deductive Behaviorism 1. Theory is okay 2. Intervening Variables ... S-O-R psychology 3. Operationalism ... Psych. still study of behavior but behavior might be controlled by intervening variables which must be operationally defined B. Tolman ... behavior is purposive ... “Cognitive Maps” ... “Latent Learning” Tolman C. Hull ... “drives’ and “habits” ... early form of “connectivism” Radical (Descriptive) Behaviorism A. Pragmatic ... A theoretical ( in theory!) ... Like Watson ... purpose of Psychology is to develop empirical laws that can be used to predict and control behavior B. In tradition of Kant ... Psychology of mind impossible C. Rejects idea that Psychology is about “mind”/”consciousness” ... it is science of behavior D. Watson’s rather than James’ form of functionlism E. “Methological behaviorists” ... again more consistent with Watson than James F. From about 1930 to 1960 there are only two kinds of Psychology in U.S. ... neobehaviorism and radical behaviorism and radical behaviorism wins out, in the end, over neobehaviorism. G. Very popular (and hated) with general public and educators to this day ... almost disappeared in academic psychology H. Emphasis on learning I. We are going to examine two very different ways to approach radical behaviorism ... one approach developed by B. F. Skinner and one by Edwin R. Guthrie B. F. Skinner A. The single most important psychologist in the 20th century B. Why? 1. Clear, well thought out, easy to understand approach to Psychology 2. Practical implications 3. Ideas can be put to direct test 4. Public personality and appeal to general public (like Watson) 5. Zeitgeist ... Institutions (e.g., states, schools) looking for ways to control behavior of people C. Skinner’s “theory” ... “Experimental Analysis of Behavior” ... a “functional” account of learning 1. Two kinds of behaviors: Operant and Respondent a. Respondent ... behaviors that are “elicited” by stimuli ... classical conditioning b. Operant ... behaviors are “emitted” ... we don’t need to know why ... operant conditioning 2. Law of Acquisition ... if a behavior is followed by reinforcement there will be an increase in the probability of that behavior occurring again ... “functional” account of learning 3. Schedules of reinforcement will affect rate of learning and rate of extinction 4. Shaping ... successive approximations 5. Identifies various ways that response contingent outcomes of behavior can affect subsequent behavior ... e.g., punishment, negative reinforcement D. Two kinds of problems: 1) empirical and 2) logical 1. Empirical a. systems works reasonably well as long as you have tight control of environment and behavioral options ... tends to fall apart otherwise b. can not give adequate account of complex symbolic behaviors (e.g., language, math, music) 2. Logical a. Definition of behavior b. Definition of reinforcer c. Definition of response E. Collapse of radical behaviorism ... “Verbal Learning” 1. Watson/Skinner had to come up with an account of language in terms of learning and some type of behavior 2. Skinner’s idea was that babies emit vocalizations that are in some cases reinforced by parents’ responses ... process shapes verbal behavior ... which we think of as language ... early on in his career Skinner recognized that language was a problem for his approach to psycholgy 3. In 1957 Skinner publishes “Verbal Behavior” ... two years later Noam Chomsky (a linguist) publishes a review article criticizing the book and at the same time radical behaviorism. The article along with several other developments in psychology lead to the collapse of radical behaviorism in academic psychology. F. Skinner’s take on the scientific method (adapted from Koch, Vol. 2) 1. The importance of Serendipity 2. Control your conditions and you will see order (may be the source of the downfall of radical behaviorism) 3. If you find something interesting, drop everything else you are doing and study it 4. Some ways of doing research are easier than others (pellet dispenser/rat pellets) 5. Some people are lucky ( pellet dispenser break down ) Guthrie A. Not well known outside of psychology B. Advocated a very pure form of behaviorism: associationism C. All learning is controlled by the “Law of Contiguity” D. One trial learning E. Spoke of “movements” rather than “responses” and “environments” rather than “stimuli” F. Reinforcement simply changed the environment in which movement occurs G. Habits form when many components of movements are associated with many components of the environment H. Extinction occurs when environmental components of one habit become associated with a different set of movements I. Gave riase to “statistical learning theory” (Estes) and later to connectionist theory