Download CHAPTER 1: CELL STRUCTURES AND TYPES

CHAPTER 1: CELL
STRUCTURES AND
TYPES
Subcellular components: Membrane, Cytoskeleton, Genetic material and
Organelles. Structures outside the cell membrane: Cell wall, Capsule,
Flagella and Fimbriae (pili). Prokaryotic cells and Eukaryotic cells .
"There are more animals living in the scum on the teeth in a man's mouth than there are men in a
whole kingdom".—Antony van Leeuwenhoek
CHAPTER 1: CELL STRUCTURES AND TYPES
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The cell is the basic structural, functional and biological unit of all known
living organisms. Cells are the smallest unit of life that can replicate
independently, and are often called the "building blocks of life".
Cells consist of a protoplasm enclosed within a membrane, which contains
many biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids. Organisms can be classified
as unicellular (consisting of a single cell; including most bacteria) or multicellular
(including plants and animals). While the number of cells in plants and animals
varies from species to species, humans contain about 100 trillion (10 14) cells. Most
plant and animal cells are visible only under the microscope, with dimensions
between 1 and 100 micrometers.
All human cells, have a membrane that envelops the cell, separates its interior
from its environment, regulates what moves in and out (selectively permeable), and
maintains the electric potential of the cell. Inside the membrane, a salty cytoplasm
takes up most of the cell volume. All human cells (except red blood cells which
lack a cell nucleus and most organelles to accommodate maximum space for
hemoglobin) possess DNA, the hereditary material of genes, and RNA, containing
the information necessary to build various proteins such as enzymes, the cell's
primary machinery. There are also other kinds of biomolecules in cells. This article
lists these primary components of the cell, and then briefly describes their function.
The cell membrane (also known as the plasma membrane or cytoplasmic
membrane) is a biological membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the
outside environment. The cell membrane is selectively permeable to ions and
organic molecules and controls the movement of substances in and out of cells. In
animals, the plasma membrane is the outer boundary of the cell, while in plants
and prokaryotes it is usually covered by a cell wall. This membrane serves to
separate and protect a cell from its surrounding environment and is made mostly
from a double layer of phospholipids, which are amphiphilic (partly hydrophobic
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and partly hydrophilic). Hence, the layer is called a phospholipid bilayer, or
sometimes a fluid mosaic membrane. Embedded within this membrane is a variety
of protein molecules that act as channels and pumps that move different molecules
into and out of the cell. The membrane is said to be 'semi-permeable', in that it can
either let a substance (molecule or ion) pass through freely, pass through to a
limited extent or not pass through at all. Cell surface membranes also contain
receptor proteins that allow cells to detect external signaling molecules such as
hormones.
Figure 1.1 Plasma Membrane Structure. This diagram of the fluid mosaic model of bacterial
membrane structure shows the integral proteins (blue) floating in a lipid bilayer. Peripheral proteins
(purple) are associated loosely with the inner membrane surface. Small spheres represent the hydrophilic
ends of membrane phospholipids and wiggly tails, the hydrophobic fatty acid chains. Other membrane
lipids such as hopanoids (pink) may be present. For the sake of clarity, phospholipids are shown in
proportionately much larger size than in real membranes.
The cytoskeleton is a cellular scaffolding or skeleton contained within a
cell's cytoplasm. It acts to organize and maintains the cell's shape; anchors
organelles in place; helps during endocytosis, the uptake of external materials by a
cell, and cytokinesis, the separation of daughter cells after cell division; and moves
parts of the cell in processes of growth and mobility. It was once thought to be
unique to eukaryotes, but recent research has identified the prokaryotic
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cytoskeleton. It forms structures such as flagella, cilia and lamellipodia, and plays
important roles in both intracellular transport (the movement of vesicles and
organelles, for example) and cellular division. In 1903, Nikolai K. Koltsov
proposed that the shape of cells was determined by a network of tubules that he
termed the cytoskeleton. The eukaryotic cytoskeleton is composed of
microfilaments, intermediate filaments and microtubules. There are a great number
of proteins associated with them, each controlling a cell's structure by directing,
bundling, and aligning filaments. The prokaryotic cytoskeleton is less well-studied
but is involved in the maintenance of cell shape, polarity and cytokinesis.
Figure 1.2 The Eukaryotic Cytoskeleton. (a) Antibody-stained microfilament system in a mammal
cell. (b) Antibody-stained microtubule system in a mammal cell.
The genetic material of a cell or an organism refers to those materials found
in the nucleus, mitochondria and cytoplasm, which play a fundamental role in
determining the structure and nature of cell substances, and capable of selfpropagating and variation.
Two different kinds of genetic material exist: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Most cells use DNA for their long-term information
storage. The biological information contained in an organism is encoded in its
DNA sequence. RNA usually used for information transport (e.g., mRNA) and
enzymatic functions (e.g., ribosomal RNA). Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules are
used to add amino acids during protein translation.
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Figure 1.3 The Structure of the DNA Double Helix. A space-filling model of the B form of DNA
with the base pairs, major groove, and minor groove shown. The backbone phosphate groups, shown in
color, spiral around the outside of the helix.
An organelle is a specialized subunit within a cell that has a specific
function, analogous to the organs of the human body (such as the heart, lung, and
kidney, with each organ performing a different function). Both eukaryotic and
prokaryotic cells have organelles, but prokaryotic organelles are generally simpler
and are not membrane-bound.
There are several types of organelles in a cell. Some (such as the nucleus and
Golgi apparatus) are typically solitary, while others (such as mitochondria,
chloroplasts, and lysosomes) can be numerous (hundreds to thousands). The
cytosol is the gelatinous fluid that fills the cell and surrounds the organelles.
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Many cells also have structures which exist wholly or partially outside the
cell membrane. These structures are notable because they are not protected from
the external environment by the impermeable cell membrane. In order to assemble
these structures, their components must be carried across the cell membrane by
export processes.
The cell wall is a tough, flexible but sometimes fairly rigid layer that
surrounds some types of cells. It is located outside the cell membrane and provides
these cells with structural support and protection, in addition to acting as a filtering
mechanism. A major function of the cell wall is to act as a pressure vessel,
preventing over-expansion when water enters the cell.
Many types of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have a cell wall. The cell
wall acts to protect the cell mechanically and chemically from its environment, and
is an additional layer of protection to the cell membrane. Different types of cell
have cell walls made up of different materials; plant cell walls are primarily made
up of pectin, fungi cell walls are made up of chitin and bacteria cell walls are made
up of peptidoglycan.
Figure 1.4 Gram-Positive and Gram-Negative Bacterial Cell Walls. The gram-positive envelope
is from Bacillus licheniformis (left), and the gram-negative micrograph is of Aquaspirillum serpens
(right). M; peptidoglycan or murein layer; OM, outer membrane; PM, plasma membrane; P, periplasmic
space; W, gram-positive peptidoglycan wall.
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A gelatinous capsule is a layer that lies outside the cell wall of some
prokaryotic cells, such as bacterial cells (outside the cell membrane and cell wall).
The capsule may be polysaccharide as in pneumococci, meningococci or
polypeptide as Bacillus anthracis or hyaluronic acid as in streptococci. It is a wellorganized layer, not easily washed off, and it can be the cause of various diseases.
Capsules are not marked by normal staining protocols and can be detected
by India ink or Methyl blue; which allows for higher contrast between the cells for
observation.
(a)
(b)
Figure 1.5 Bacterial Capsules. (a) Klebsiella pneumoniae with its capsule stained for observation in
the light microscope (1,500). (b) Bacteroides glycocalyx (gly), TEM (71,250).
Flagella are lash-like appendages that protrude from the cell body of certain
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, responsible for cellular mobility. The bacterial
flagellum stretches from cytoplasm through the cell membrane(s) and extrudes
through the cell wall. They are long and thick thread-like appendages, protein in
nature. Are most commonly found in bacteria cells but are found in animal cells as
well.
They are short and thin hair-like filaments, formed of protein called pilin
(antigen). Fimbriae are responsible for attachment of bacteria to specific receptors
of human cell (adherence). There are special types of pili called (sex pili) involved
in conjunction.
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Figure 1.6 Flagella and Fimbriae. The long flagella and the numerous shorter fimbriae are very
evident in this electron micrograph of Proteus vulgaris (39,000).
There are two types of cells, eukaryotes, which contain a nucleus, and
prokaryotes, which do not. Prokaryotic cells are usually single-celled organisms,
while eukaryotic cells can be either single-celled or part of multicellular
organisms.
The prokaryotes are a group of organisms whose cells lack a membranebound nucleus (karyon). Prokaryotic cells were the first form of life on Earth. They
are simpler and smaller than eukaryotic cells, and lack membrane-bound organelles
such as the nucleus. Prokaryotes include two of the domains of life, bacteria and
archaea. The DNA of a prokaryotic cell consists of a single chromosome that is in
direct contact with the cytoplasm. The nuclear region in the cytoplasm is called the
nucleoid.
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A eukaryote is any organism whose cells contain a nucleus and other
structures (organelles) enclosed within membranes. Plants, animals, fungi, slime
molds, protozoa, and algae are all eukaryotic. These cells are about fifteen times
wider than a typical prokaryote and can be as much as a thousand times greater in
volume. The main distinguishing feature of eukaryotes as compared to prokaryotes
is compartmentalization: the presence of membrane-bound compartments in which
specific metabolic activities take place. Most important among these is a cell
nucleus, a membrane-delineated compartment that houses the eukaryotic cell's
DNA. This nucleus gives the eukaryote its name, which means "true nucleus."
Figure 1.7 General structure of prokaryotic (left) and Eukaryotic (right) cells.
The domain Eukaryota appears to be monophyletic, and so makes up one of
the three domains of life. The two other domains, Bacteria and Archaea, are
prokaryotes and have none of the above features. Eukaryotes represent a tiny
minority of all living things; even in a human body there are 10 times more
microbes than human cells. However, due to their much larger size, their collective
worldwide biomass is estimated at about equal to that of prokaryotes. Eukaryotes
first developed approximately 1.6–2.1 billion years ago.
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1. The cell is the basic structural, functional and biological unit of all known living
organisms. Cells are the smallest unit of life that can replicate independently, and are
often called the "building blocks of life".
2. Cells consist of a protoplasm enclosed within a membrane, which contains many
biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids.
3. Organisms can be classified as unicellular (consisting of a single cell; including most
bacteria) or multicellular (including plants and animals).
4. The primary components of the cell include cell membrane, cytoskeleton, genetic
material and different organelles which consider as confined functional units within a
cell.
5. The secondary components of the cell are structures exist wholly or partially outside the
cell membrane, like cell wall, capsule, flagella and pili.
6. Cells in our world come in two basic types, prokaryotic and eukaryotic. "Karyose" comes
from a Greek word which means "kernel," as in a kernel of grain. In biology, we use this
word root to refer to the nucleus of a cell. "Pro" means "before," and "eu" means "true,"
or "good." So "Prokaryotic" means "before a nucleus," and "eukaryotic" means
"possessing a true nucleus." This is a big hint about one of the differences between these
two cell types. Prokaryotic cells have no nuclei, while eukaryotic cells do have true
nuclei.
1) What is the cell? and what are its two main parts?
2) Write the subcellular components and mention it's significant.
3) Enumerate the most important structures that present outside the plasma membrane of
some cells.
4) What are the "pili" and what are the purposes of it?
5) Give any five differences between Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
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