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Psychological Science, 3rd Edition Michael Gazzaniga Todd Heatherton Diane Halpern Attention and Memory 7 Questions to Consider: How Does Attention Determine What Is Remembered? What Are the Basic Stages of Memory? What Are the Different Long-Term Memory Systems? How Is Information Organized in Long- Term Memory? What Brain Processes Are Involved in Memory? When Do People Forget? How Are Memories Distorted? How Can We Improve Learning and Memory? How Does Attention Determine What Is Remembered? Visual Attention Is Selective and Serial Auditory Attention Allows Selective Listening Selective Attention Can Operate at Multiple Stages of Processing Critical Thinking Skill: Recognizing When “Change Blindness Blindness” May Be Occurring Learning Objectives Explain how attention is adaptive. Explain why we can be blind to many changes in our environments. The portions of the medial temporal lobe that were removed from H.M.’s brain are indicated by the shaded regions. Visual Attention Is Selective and Serial Visual attention operates through both automatic and effortful processes We automatically and rapidly identify stimuli that differ in only one single feature (e.g., size, color, orientation) Parallel processing Searching for two features (e.g., red and large) happens slowly and serially Parallel processing allows us to process information from different visual features at the same time by focusing on targets (here, the red objects) over distractors. Auditory Attention Allows Selective Listening We can attend to more than one message at a time but not well Selective listening We process some unattended information but in a weaker form than we process attended information The participant receives a different auditory messages in each ear, but is required to repeat (“shadow”) only one. Selective Attention Can Operate at Multiple Stages of Processing Change blindness We often miss large objects in our visual field when we are attending to something else Although most people do not believe they can fail to see large objects right in front of them, numerous studies show this is the case ZAPS: The Norton Psychology Labs Attentional Blink Critical Thinking Skill Recognizing when “change blindness blindness” may be occurring Thinking we always notice large changes in our visual field may lead us to perceive things incorrectly Eyewitness Recognize the limits of attention What Are the Basic Stages of Memory? Sensory Memory Is Brief Working Memory Is Active Long-Term Permanent Memory Is Relatively Learning Objective Describe the stages in the modal model of memory, including how long each stage lasts and how much information it can hold. What Are the Basic Stages of Memory? Three parts of memory: Sensory memory Short-term or working memory Long-term memory H.M. Memory Systems Exercise (a) The information processing model compares the working of memory to the actions of a computer. (b) The modal memory model serves as a useful framework for thinking about the basic stages of memory. Sensory Memory Is Brief Visual and auditory memories are maintained at the sensory memory stage long enough to ensure a continuous sensory experience Working Memory Is Active Immediate active memory is limited. Working memory holds information for about 20– 30 seconds unless you make efforts to maintain information Memory span Chunking reduces information into meaningful units that are easier to remember. Working Memory Is Active The components of working memory: Central executive Phonological loop Encodes auditory information Visuospatial sketchpad The boss—filters information to long-term memory Retrieves from long-term memory as needed Encodes visual information Episodic Buffer Holds temporary information about oneself The working memory system details the components and processes of short-term memory. ZAPS: The Norton Psychology Labs BrownPeterson Task Long-Term Memory Is Relatively Permanent Long-term memory (LTM) is the potentially indefinite storage of all memories Distinct from working memory in duration and capacity Serial position effect Meaningful memories are stored in LTM in networklike structures What Are the Different LongTerm Memory Systems? Explicit Memory Involves Conscious Effort Implicit Memory Occurs without Deliberate Effort Prospective Memory Is Remembering to Do Something Learning Objectives Explain the differences among episodic, semantic, implicit, explicit, and prospective memories. Provide an example of each of these types of memory. What Are the Different LongTerm Memory Systems? Memory is not a single process or brain system Fundamental differences exist among episodic and semantic memory, explicit and implicit memory, and prospective memory Explicit Memory Involves Conscious Effort Explicit, declarative memories that we consciously remember include: Episodic memory (personal events) Semantic memory (knowledge) Implicit Memory Occurs without Deliberate Effort Implicit memory consists of memories about which we have no conscious knowledge Procedural (motor) memories of how to do things automatically Implicit memory influences our lives in subtle ways Attitude formation Advertising Prospective Memory Is Remembering to Do Something Procedural memory consists of remembering to do something at some future time Has “costs” in terms of reducing attention and reducing working memory capacity How Is Information Organized in Long-Term Memory? Long-Term Storage Is Based on Meaning Schemas Provide an Organizational Framework Information Is Stored in Association Networks Retrieval Cues Provide Access to Long-Term Storage Learning Objectives Illustrate the organization of long-term memory. Show how retrieval cues can determine what we remember. Long-Term Storage Is Based on Meaning Memory processes include encoding, storage, and retrieval Memories are stored by meaning Elaborative rehearsal involves encoding information in more meaningful ways and results in better memory than maintenance (repetition) rehearsal. Participants are asked to consider a list of words according to how the words are printed, how they sound, or what they mean. Schemas Provide an Organizational Framework Schemas are structures in long-term memory that help us perceive, organize, process and use information Cultural variations in schemas produce differences in what and how information is remembered Can lead to biased encoding Information Is Stored in Association Networks Networks of associations Formed by nodes of information Nodes are linked together Spreading activation In this semantic network, similar concepts are connected through their associations. Retrieval Cues Provide Access to Long-Term Storage A retrieval cue is anything that helps access the right information stored in long-term memory Easier to recognize than recall information According to the encoding specificity principle, any stimulus encoded along with an experience can later trigger the memory of the experience Memory’s context also activated ZAPS: The Norton Psychology Labs Recalling Information What Brain Processes Are Involved in Memory? There Has Been Intensive Effort to Identify Memory’s Physical Location The Medial Temporal Lobes Are Important for Consolidation of Declarative Memories The Frontal Lobes Are Involved in Many Aspects of Memory Neurochemistry Underlies Memory Learning Objective Describe the underlying changes in the brain when something is learned. There Has Been Intensive Effort to Identify Memory’s Physical Location Research during the past thirty years has demonstrated that memories are encoded in distributed networks of neurons in relatively specific brain regions Karl Lashley Unable to locate a specific site of memory storage (engram) Equipotentiality There Has Been Intensive Effort to Identify Memory’s Physical Location Memories are stored in multiple regions of the brain and linked through memory circuits Different regions responsible for storing different information Research has revealed that a number of specific brain regions contribute to learning and memory. Brain Regions Associated with Memory Exercise Medial Temporal Lobes: Important for Consolidation of Declarative Memories Immediate memories become lasting memories through consolidation Consolidation involves changes in neural connections The hippocampus, a structure in the medial temporal lobe, is important for declarative memories Four horizontally sliced brain images acquired using magnetic resonance imaging indicate that regions of the sensory cortex are reactivated when we remember sensory-specific information. Medial Temporal Lobes: Important for Consolidation of Declarative Memories Spatial memory: Memory for the physical environment Place cells in the hippocampus aid spatial memory In lab, place cells fire only when a rat returns to a specific location, not in a new environment Taxi drivers The Frontal Lobes Are Involved in Many Aspects of Memory Extensive neural networks connect the frontal lobes with other memory regions of the brain Brain imaging studies show that the frontal lobes are crucial for encoding Activation of neurons in the frontal lobe is associated with deeper meaning The amount of brain activation and the areas activated in the brain depend on the type and timing of the material being remembered. The Frontal Lobes Are Involved in Many Aspects of Memory The frontal lobe may also play a role in working memory Patients with damage to frontal areas, human infants, and monkeys with frontal lesions all have difficulty with tasks associated with working memory Neurochemistry Underlies Memory A group of neurochemicals modulates the storage of memories (memory modulators) Epinephrine enhances memory Excreted from adrenal glands when an animal is excited or afraid Neurochemistry Underlies Memory The Amygdala: Probably responsible for memory modulation through activity in its norepinephrine receptors Amygdala is activated during emotional memory Gender differences Studies have shown that men’s and women’s brains respond differently to emotional experiences and to the memories of those experiences. (Top) This image shows the greater activity in the right amygdala of a man’s brain while the man is viewing emotionally arousing images. (Bottom) This image shows the greater activity in the left amygdala of a woman’s brain while the woman is viewing emotionally arousing images. When Do People Forget? Transience Is Caused by Interference Blocking Is Temporary Absentmindedness Results from Shallow Encoding Amnesia Is a Deficit in Long-Term Memory Learning Objective List and explain the basic processes used to understand forgetting. When Do People Forget? Forgetting is the inability to retrieve memory from long-term storage The ability to forget is just as important as the ability to remember Forgetting allows us to function in normal society Transience Is Caused by Interference Forgetting over time occurs because of interference from both old and new information. Proactive interference Old information inhibits the ability to remember new information Retroactive interference New information inhibits the ability to remember old information Proactive interference occurs when information already known (here, psychology material) interferes with the ability to remember new information (here, anthropology material). Retroactive interference occurs when new information (anthropology material) interferes with memory for old information (psychology material). Blocking Is Temporary Blocking is the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon when a person temporarily has trouble retrieving the right word, usually from interference from a similar word Absentmindedness Results from Shallow Encoding Inattentive or shallow processing causes memory failure Inattentiveness also leads to change blindness Cultural differences seem to exist in change blindness Amnesia Is a Deficit in LongTerm Memory Both injury and disease can result in amnesia The two basic types of amnesia are: Retrograde amnesia(the inability to recall past Anterograde amnesia (the inability to form new memories) How Are Memories Distorted? Flashbulb Memories Can Be Wrong People Make Source Misattributions People Are Bad Eyewitnesses Critical Thinking Skill: Recognizing How the Fallibility of Human Memory Can Lead to Faulty Conclusions People Have False Memories Repressed Memories Are Controversial People Reconstruct Events to Be Consistent Neuroscience May Make It Possible to Distinguish between “True” and “False” Memories Learning Objective Describe how memories can be distorted. Flashbulb Memories Can Be Wrong The strong emotional response that attends a flashbulb memory may modulate the memory’s strength and affect the memory’s accuracy People Make Source Misattributions A person can misremember the source of a memory (source misattribution) False fame effect In cryptomnesia, a person thinks he or she has come up with a new idea, but has only retrieved a memory People Are Bad Eyewitnesses Poor eyewitness recall occurs Particularly when people try to identify those of other ethnicities Suggestibility leads to misinformation Elizabeth Loftus and her colleagues Eyewitness confidence is high (whether they are right or wrong), which makes them convincing Critical Thinking Skill Recognizing how the fallibility of human memory can lead to faulty conclusions Despite the fact that eyewitnesses are often wrong, people tend to believe them There is little or no relationship between a person’s confidence and the accuracy of the memory Remember that memory is often inaccurate and check it against facts whenever possible People Have False Memories Source amnesia occurs when a person has a memory but cannot remember where he or she got the information Immature frontal lobes cause childhood amnesia Many events we remember from early childhood are constructed from information learned later in life People Have False Memories False memories can be implanted Confabulation (the false recollection of episodic memory) can occur because of brain damage H.W. Repressed Memories Are Controversial One of the most heated debates in psychological science centers on repressed memories Some psychotherapists claim that longrepressed memories of traumatic events can resurface Evidence suggests that some therapeutic techniques can result in false repressed memories People Reconstruct Events to Be Consistent Memory bias: People’s memories change over time to maintain consistency between their past memories, their current knowledge, and their current attitudes Distinguishing between “True” and “False” Memories? When a memory is true (accurate), the brain regions activated by retrieval are the same ones that were active at encoding By examining brain activity at retrieval, researchers hope to distinguish true from false memories The current research has many flaws, but the techniques may be improved in the future The fMRIs below come from a study in which the investigators examined brain activity while the subjects engaged in deception. T-score is a statistical estimate of the size of the difference in neural activity between truth and deception conditions; on the scale here, bright yellow indicates the strongest brain activity. As the images show, various brain regions were involved in deceptive answers. The investigators were particularly interested in their theory linking memory and language processes to deception, and activity in areas indicated by arrows most strongly supported their theory. How Can We Improve Learning and Memory? Mnemonics for Learning Are Useful Strategies Learning Objective Explain how we can use scientific knowledge about memory to improve memory. Mnemonics Are Useful Strategies for Learning Practice Memory is strengthened with repeated retrieval Frequent testing and active responding spaced out over time provides a strategy to enhance memory Elaborate the material When you relate new information to information you already know, you create more retrieval cues, which make you more likely to recall the new information later Mnemonics Are Useful Strategies for Learning Overlearn Get adequate sleep Creates stronger memory traces, probably because of repeated retrieval Because memories undergo consolidation during sleep, it is important to get adequate sleep Use verbal mnemonics Catchy verbal associations can act as retrieval cue Mnemonics Are Useful Strategies For Learning Use Visual Imagery Imagery requires you to pay attention Also uses both the verbal and visuospatial components in working memory, thus creating stronger memory traces External aids, including paper and pencil, can be helpful when you need to remember something www.wwnorton.com/studyspace Diagnostic Quizzes Visual Quizzes Chapter Reviews Review Podcasts Vocabulary Flashcards Video Podcasts Video Exercises Animations Critical Thinking Activities