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Chapter 6 A.P. Psychology-Learning Learning-a relatively permanent change in behavior based on prior experience. Behaviorists believe learning is measured by ________________ behavior; whereas cognitivists view learning as a _____________ process Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)-Russian physiologist who was the first person to demonstrate the learning procedure called ________________ Conditioning. He did this after studying the digestive systems of ______ in the early 1900’s. Classical Conditioning-basic form of learning in which a __________ that produces an ________ reflex becomes associated with a previously __________ stimulus, which then acquires the power to elicit essentially that same response. Reflex-an involuntary response elicited/produced from a stimulus Example-salivation to food Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS/US)-a stimulus/event that elicits/produces a certain predictable unlearned automatic ______________ without previous training. Unconditioned Response (UCR/UR)-an automatic/unlearned (or natural) _____________ that is preceded or elicited by an _______________. Neutral stimulus (NS)-a stimulus that does not ______________elicit a response prior to learning Conditioned Stimulus (CS)-a once __________ stimulus that has been paired repeatedly with the ____________________ to produce/elicit a conditioned/learned response. Conditioned Response (CR)-the learned reaction to a _______________ stimulus. Acquisition-initial learning in CC when ____ comes to be elicited by the _____. Identify the following in Ivan Pavlov’s Classical conditioning experiment: NS- ___________________ UCS-___________________ UCR-___________________ CS-____________________ CR-____________________ Extinction-the gradual disappearance of a ____ when the CS is repeatedly presented without the _____. -simply put; extinction is the gradual loss of an association between the and the over time Extinction disrupts the CS-CR association, however this connection is inhibited not lost forever. If the UCS is once again presented with the CS, the previously acquired CS-CR association will return. This is called reconditioning. (the quick relearning of a previously extinct CS-CR association) Spontaneous recovery-the reappearance of an extinguished ____ after a time delay. Stimulus Generalization-the tendency for a CR (behavior) to be elicited by a ______________ stimuli. Discrimination-the ability to distinguish between the CS and similar stimuli that are not associated with the __________________. (reverse of ______________) Second or higher order conditioning-a new Neutral stimulus (NS) is repeatedly paired with the conditioned stimulus (CS) in order to elicit the same conditioned response (CR) Pavlov paired the tone (CS) with a light (NS). After repeated trials, the light became a ____________________ that elicited salivation (_____). John Watson was a ______________ who believe that environment (___________) alone dictated human behavior and development. To prove this he and his assistant Rosalie Rayner set out to condition the emotion of fear in a human infant (___________________) Identify the following in John Watson’s experiment: NS- ___________________ UCS-___________________ UCR-___________________ CS-____________________ CR-____________________ Treating phobias 1. Flooding (implosive therapy)-continuously exposing an individual to the fearevoking conditioned stimulus to eliminate the conditioned response. Example-if a person had a phobia of balloons; surround them with balloons. 2. Systematic desensitization-exposing the patient to a series of approximations to the anxiety-provoking stimulus under relaxed conditions until the anxiety reaction is extinguished. Example-if a person had a phobia of balloons; gradually expose them to a balloon while learning to relax during each exposure. 3. Counterconditioning-paring the fear-evoking stimulus with a pleasant stimulus to reverse the effects of the phobia. Example-the person with the balloon phobia; pair the balloon with a pleasant stimulus (person’s favorite food?) in hopes of countering the negative effects of the balloon. BUT could possible lead to making person afraid of pleasant stimulus. How? Conditioned food aversions Conditioned taste (food) aversion-exposure to a noxious substance causing nausea and sickness; resulting in an individual associating the food with the sickness making him/her avoid that ________ in the future. Psychologist John Garcia demonstrated that aversion to food can be classically conditioned in a rat. Rat was given a noxious substance that caused nausea, then exposed to various stimuli. Garcia noticed that when the rat was exposed to the stimuli that accompanied the noxious substance that caused nausea; the rat avoided the ____________ all together Exposure to the noxious substance and reaction (getting sick) can occur after a long delay and still produce a strong association. (doesn’t have to be contiguous) Does not require multiple trials Evolutionist say taste aversions are necessary to survive Operant conditioning Edward Thorndike-developed the theory “Law of effect” which says that behaviors that resulted in rewards are “stamped in” (strengthened), while behaviors that did not result in rewards are “stamped out” (_________________) His theory would be further explained by behaviorist ___________________. B.F. Skinner believed that while classical conditioning explained behaviors that occur because of reflexes; operant conditioning required the subject to operate on, or manipulate, its environment. He said how you interact with your environment is based primarily on the reinforcement or punishment you receive. Punishment-a stimulus that, when made contingent on a behavior, decreases the strength of the exhibited behavior, acts as a deterrent to behavior. Reinforcer-a stimulus that, when made contingent on a behavior, ___________ the strength of the exhibited behavior, is necessary for the continuation of a behavior. Skinner said there are two reinforcers that allow learning to take place: 1. Primary reiforcers-any reinforcing stimuli that satisfy a biological need (food, water, sex (although it is not a need!) etc…) these are not learned 2. Secondary (conditioned) reinforcers-any previous neutral stimuli that have gained reinforcement value after being associated with another reinforce (Money, praise, grades, etc…) Skinner believed that all behavior can be explained in one of four ways. Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, negative punishment (omission) But first some terminology: Positive-the ____________ of a stimulus Negative-the _____________ of a stimulus Appetitive-a desired/liked stimulus Aversive-an undesirable/disliked stimulus Increase in behavior-exhibited behavior continues Decrease in behavior-exhibited behavior decrease “Skinner squares” The following are examples of the above “skinner Squares”, what are they? 1. Every time Mr. Harrison gets a headache (like at the start of second block) he takes an aspirin: ________________________. When his headache goes away, he is more likely to take aspirin in the future. 2. Every time students have phone out being rude and disruptive Mr. Harrison calls their parents and hopefully they get in trouble: _______________________. Therefor students no longer have phones out in class. 3. Every time Amy gets an A in psychology class, her parents give her praise: ___________________. Therefore she earns more A’s. 4. Every time Elissa stays out past her curfew, her parents take away her car: ___________________. Therefore she no longer stays out past her curfew. Within negative reinforcement there are two types of learning, escape and avoidance. 1. Escape learning-when you remove yourself from the aversive stimulus. Example-a loud commercial comes on TV, you leave the room. 2. Avoidance learning-you remove yourself from the upcoming aversive stimulus. Example-each time you know there is a commercial coming on, you leave the room. Shaping/chaining (via successive approximations)-creating a new behavior based on a sequence of rewarding behaviors that come closer and closer to the ultimate behavioral goal. Continuous reinforcement-reinforcement that occurs after every desired behavior is exhibited. Necessary during initial acquisition stage of learning But one problem with continuous reinforcement is that the subject may expect the reinforcement each time and if it is not provided, stimulusresponse connection can be quickly lost. Example-reward a dog every time he sits when you tell him to. To make sure the stimulus-response connection is made (and strengthened) a schedule of reinforcement should be implemented. Partial reinforcement (intermittent reinforcement schedule)-when reinforcement for the desired behavior is given occasionally. Elicits a greater number of responses because it is unknown when the reinforcement will take place. Less prone to extinction Four basic types of intermittent reinforcement schedules Ratio-based on number of behaviors performed Interval-based on __________. 1. Fixed-ratio (FR)-reinforcement provided after a set number of correct responses are performed Example-a rat receives a food pellet after every five times it presses a lever 2. Variable-ratio (VR) - reinforcement provided after a varying number of correct behaviors Example-a slot machine at a casino reward the player after a varying number of pulls 3. Fixed-ratio (FI) - reinforcement provided for the first desired response after a set amount of _________ has elapsed Example-your favorite TV show comes on every Monday at 8:00 4. Variable interval (VI) - reinforcement provided after the first desired response after a varying amount of time has elapsed Example-your favorite TV show comes on after the baseball game ends Extinction can occur for operant conditioning also, extinction occurs when reinforcement is absent from the desired behavior Applications of Operant conditioning Behavior modification-a change in a previous behavior to a newly desired behavior Token economies-an environment that reinforces desired behavior by rewarding the behavior with secondary reinforcers that can be exchanged for other reinforcers. Cognitive learning Learned helplessness-failure to continue exerting effort for an outcome because all previous attempts have _____________ Example-Mr. Harrison keeps trying to make the Chicago Cubs baseball team. He never does, so he ________ trying. His mental interpretation or thinking that he lacks control over the outcome leads him to have feelings of hopelessness, so he stops trying to make the team Edward Tolman said learning take place cognitively and thus may not necessary be immediately observable. Mice? Cognitive maps-mental representations people rely on to understand complex patterns Latent learning-learning that may not be displayed until a later time, it is not always immediately observable and may lie hidden until a circumstance arises that requires this prior learning to be displayed. It is important to note, this behavior was learned without any direct reinforcement Observational learning-acquiring knowledge by _________ others perform a task. Albert Bandura-the “Bobo doll experiment” Wanted to study effects of violence displayed in the media on children’s behavior Concluded that children who watched an adult behave violently with BOBO, modeled (imitated/copied) the same aggressive behavior that was directly observed. Children who watched an adult play nice with BOBO modeled the same nice behavioral when they played with BOBO. Demonstrated the impact of watching violence and aggression on TV Criticism of the “Bobo experiment”- possible _____________ variables? Habituation-learning ______ to respond to the repeated presentation of a stimulus. Mere exposure effect-learned preference for stimuli to which we have been ____________ exposed Does punishment work? Must be swift, must be certain, target the behavior (not the person), Premack Principle (David Premack)-more preferred activity can be used to reinforce a ________ preferred activity Wolfgang Kohler? Insight learning? “Skinner” box Counterconditioning therapy Experimental neurosis Long-term potentiation