Download 2015 Midterm Study Guide

Name______________________
Miss Badean
Date__________
AP Biology
Midterm Study Guide
**This is a GENERAL overview of the topics covered on your midterm**
Topic 1: Chemistry of Life, Cell Transport, Cell Structure and Function
Elements of Life
Properties of Water
Synthesis (Condensation) versus Hydrolysis
Macromolecules – Nucleic Acids, Proteins, Carbohydrates, Lipids
-Structure and Function
-Monomers – Polymers
-How modifications to structure result in modification of properties/functions
Proteins – Levels of Structure
Surface Area to Volume Ratio – Impact on Cells
Prokaryotic versus Eukaryotic Cells – Compare and Contrast
Compartmentalization
Cellular Organelles – The workers of cells – Relationship between structure and function
-Ribosomes (free versus attached), RER, SER, Golgi, Mitochondria, Lysosomes, Vacuole,
Chloroplast, Cell Membrane, Nucleus, Cell Wall
-Prediction of functions of cells with high or low concentrations of these organelles
Endomembrane System – Transport of Proteins
Plant versus Animal Cells
Cell Membrane and Transport
Active versus Passive Transport – Characteristics, Examples, and Examples of molecules that utilize
each type of transport
Tonicity – Hypotonic, Hypertonic, Isotonic – Comparative Terms
Water Potential – Formula Provided to You
Percent Change in Mass – Memorize this Formula
Topic 2: Metabolism: Energetics, Enzymes, Photosynthesis and Cell Respiration
Energy
Metabolism
First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics
Free Energy (G)
-Loss of Free Energy results in…
Gibbs Free Energy – Formula Provided to you
Exergonic versus Endergonic Reaction
ATP: ATP - ADP cycle
Enzymes: structure, function, regulation
Reduction/Oxidation Reactions
Key coenzymes in reduction/oxidation reactions (NADP+, NAD, FAD)
Electron Transport Chains, Chemiosmosis, ATP Synthase – Role in ATP generation
Photosynthesis:
Autotrophs versus Heterotrophs
Role of photosynthesis
How do the reactants reach the site of photosynthesis
Pigments – What colors are absorbed? What colors do you see?
Light Dependent Reactions
Calvin Cycle - Carbon Fixation (Light Independent Reactions)
Why is photosynthesis the most important biological reaction on Earth?
Cellular Respiration
What is the purpose of this process?
Compare and contrast aerobic and anaerobic respiration in terms of products and energy production
Glycolysis - the most ancient metabolic pathway -> shows ancestral evolutionary relationships
Transition Reaction (Link Reaction) - Converting Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA
Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)
Oxidative Phosphorylation (Electron Transport Chain and Chemiosmosis)
Is glucose the only molecule used in cellular respiration? explain.
What happens if there is excess free energy (consuming more energy than is produced?)
How is cellular respiration regulated? (ENZYMES!)
Anaerobic respiration (fermentation) - When oxygen is not available (following glycolysis)
-Lactic Acid Fermentation
-Connection between muscle fatigue and lactic acid fermentation
-Alcohol Fermentation
-If the ATP is generated during glycolysis, what is the major purpose of fermentation?
Topic 3: Mitosis/Cell Cycle Regulation/Meiosis/Mendelian Genetics
Mitosis
Why do cells divide?
What are the four requirements in order for cell division to occur in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes?
How is the prokaryotic genome organized (chromosomes, number, structure)
Eukaryotic Cell Cycle - Three Stages - Interphase, Mitosis, Cytokinesis
Chromosomes versus Chromatids
Diploid versus Haploid
Plant versus Animal cell mitosis
Genetic relationship between parental cell and daughter cells
Cell Cycle Regulation:
Critical for regulation of growth, development and maintenance
Three Major Check Points:
G1/S: Is the DNA ready to be replicated?
G2/M: Has DNA synthesis been completed correctly?
Spindle Checkpoint (Metaphase Checkpoint): Are the chromosomes aligned properly?
Each checkpoint is regulated by a different Cdk-Cyclin Pairs (Cyclin Dependent Kinase)
Kinase enzymes function by adding phosphate groups to molecules to activate/inhibit their activity
Regulating the amount of Cyclin produced, regulates Cdk activity
Internal and External Signals to stimulate a cell to divide
Ex: Platelet Derived Growth Factor - will stimulate cell division
Proto-oncogenes - Activate cell division
Tumor-Suppressor Genes (ex. p53) - Inhibit cell division
Cancer
Benign versus Malignant Tumors
Meiosis:
Compare and Contrast with Mitosis
Homologous Chromosomes - importance in meiosis? (They MUST find each other)
Produces Haploid Cells
Meiosis I - reduces the number of chromosomes by half (Homologous chromosomes sepate)
Meiosis II - sister chromatids split and results in the formation of 4 gametes
Results in genetic variation
Crossing Over
Fertilization RESTORES the diploid number
Errors in Meiosis:
Chromosomal Mutations
Disjunction versus Nondisjunction
Nondisjunction events involving sex chromosomes do not usually result in spontaneous abortion
Most autosomal chromosomal mutations result in spontaneous abortion
Amniocentesis and Karyotyping
Genetic Testing - Ethics
Chromosomal Mutations
Mendelian Genetics
Gregor Mendel and his experiments with pea plants
P, F1, and F2 generations
Dominant versus Recessive Alleles
Genotype versus Phenotype
Test Cross
Alleles - How many alleles do you inherit for a particular gene?
Law of Segregation and Law of Independent Assortment – For genes are are UNLINKED
Ratios of importance: Aa x Aa ; AaBb x BbBb ; AaBb x aabb (for unlinked genes)
Chi-Square Analysis of data – Formula Will be Provided to you – Along with chi square table
Extensions of Mendel’s Laws (linked genes, incomplete dominance, codominance, multiple alleles,
Sex-linked traits)
Chloroplasts and Mitochondria carry their own DNA that codes for other traits
Linked genes versus Unlinked Genes
Recombination Frequency – Memorize this Formula
Gene Mapping using recombination frequencies: 1% = 1 map unit
Environment can influence gene expression
Topic 4: Molecular Genetics Study Guide
History Of DNA - Experiments of Importance
Griffth
Hershey and Chase
Avery, Macleod and McCarty
Chargoff
Rosalind Franklin and Wilkins
Watson and Crick
DNA versus RNA – Structure, Function – Compare and Contrast
DNA Replication
Semi-conservative
Enzymes involved in DNA replication:
Topoisomerase
Helicase
DNA Polymerase
DNA Ligase
Where does DNA replication begin? (Prokaryotes have one, Eukaryotes have many)
In which direction can DNA be synthesized? (5’  3’ OR 3’  5’)
Leading versus Lagging Strand
Okazaki Fragments
Central Dogma of Biology
Transcription
Post-Transcription Processing
What gets removed? What gets spliced together? What gets added?
Does this occur in Prokaryotes?
Alternative Splicing
Translation
Ribosomes
tRNA
Genetic Code – codons in mRNA
Compare/Contrast Protein Synthesis between Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes
Mutations
Types of Mutations - Point versus Frameshift
Silent, Missense, Nonsense
Insertion, Deletion
What causes mutations?
How might a mutated protein affect a cell? – link to levels of protein structure
Are all mutations harmful?
Prokaryotic Gene Expression
Operons
Components: Regulatory Genes -> Code for Repressor Proteins, Promoter, Operator, Structural
Genes
Inducer Operon - For metabolic pathways that are normally turned “off” Ex: Lac Operon
Repressor Operons - For metabolic pathways that are normally turned “on” Ex: Trp Operon
Significance of using operons - Why have bacteria that have operons continue to remain in existence
What genes are always turned on? (examples)
Eukaryotic Gene Expression
Why are there multiple points of gene regulation?
Why is it essential that multicellular organisms have tightly regulated gene expression
**Enables cells to remain specialized and carry out their specific functions and save energy
DNA Packing
Histones - Nucleosomes
Euchromatin
Heterochromatin
Methylation
Pre-transcription - Role of Transcription Factors - What are they and why are they required?
Enhancer Sequences – Activator Proteins bind to these sequences – Allows RNA Polymerase bind
Regulating the availability of transcription factors in different cell types helps regulation transcription
Post Transcription Regulation – Alternative Splicing; Breakdown of mRNA
Pre-Translation - Delaying start of Protein Synthesis
Post-Translation - Delaying Protein Activation, Protein Breakdown
Biotechnology
PCR – polymerase chain reaction
Gel Electrophoresis
Restriction Enzymes
Genetic Engineering – Plasmids
Biotransformation
Scientific Method and Experimentation