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Name______________________ Miss Badean Date__________ AP Biology Midterm Study Guide **This is a GENERAL overview of the topics covered on your midterm** Topic 1: Chemistry of Life, Cell Transport, Cell Structure and Function Elements of Life Properties of Water Synthesis (Condensation) versus Hydrolysis Macromolecules – Nucleic Acids, Proteins, Carbohydrates, Lipids -Structure and Function -Monomers – Polymers -How modifications to structure result in modification of properties/functions Proteins – Levels of Structure Surface Area to Volume Ratio – Impact on Cells Prokaryotic versus Eukaryotic Cells – Compare and Contrast Compartmentalization Cellular Organelles – The workers of cells – Relationship between structure and function -Ribosomes (free versus attached), RER, SER, Golgi, Mitochondria, Lysosomes, Vacuole, Chloroplast, Cell Membrane, Nucleus, Cell Wall -Prediction of functions of cells with high or low concentrations of these organelles Endomembrane System – Transport of Proteins Plant versus Animal Cells Cell Membrane and Transport Active versus Passive Transport – Characteristics, Examples, and Examples of molecules that utilize each type of transport Tonicity – Hypotonic, Hypertonic, Isotonic – Comparative Terms Water Potential – Formula Provided to You Percent Change in Mass – Memorize this Formula Topic 2: Metabolism: Energetics, Enzymes, Photosynthesis and Cell Respiration Energy Metabolism First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics Free Energy (G) -Loss of Free Energy results in… Gibbs Free Energy – Formula Provided to you Exergonic versus Endergonic Reaction ATP: ATP - ADP cycle Enzymes: structure, function, regulation Reduction/Oxidation Reactions Key coenzymes in reduction/oxidation reactions (NADP+, NAD, FAD) Electron Transport Chains, Chemiosmosis, ATP Synthase – Role in ATP generation Photosynthesis: Autotrophs versus Heterotrophs Role of photosynthesis How do the reactants reach the site of photosynthesis Pigments – What colors are absorbed? What colors do you see? Light Dependent Reactions Calvin Cycle - Carbon Fixation (Light Independent Reactions) Why is photosynthesis the most important biological reaction on Earth? Cellular Respiration What is the purpose of this process? Compare and contrast aerobic and anaerobic respiration in terms of products and energy production Glycolysis - the most ancient metabolic pathway -> shows ancestral evolutionary relationships Transition Reaction (Link Reaction) - Converting Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle) Oxidative Phosphorylation (Electron Transport Chain and Chemiosmosis) Is glucose the only molecule used in cellular respiration? explain. What happens if there is excess free energy (consuming more energy than is produced?) How is cellular respiration regulated? (ENZYMES!) Anaerobic respiration (fermentation) - When oxygen is not available (following glycolysis) -Lactic Acid Fermentation -Connection between muscle fatigue and lactic acid fermentation -Alcohol Fermentation -If the ATP is generated during glycolysis, what is the major purpose of fermentation? Topic 3: Mitosis/Cell Cycle Regulation/Meiosis/Mendelian Genetics Mitosis Why do cells divide? What are the four requirements in order for cell division to occur in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes? How is the prokaryotic genome organized (chromosomes, number, structure) Eukaryotic Cell Cycle - Three Stages - Interphase, Mitosis, Cytokinesis Chromosomes versus Chromatids Diploid versus Haploid Plant versus Animal cell mitosis Genetic relationship between parental cell and daughter cells Cell Cycle Regulation: Critical for regulation of growth, development and maintenance Three Major Check Points: G1/S: Is the DNA ready to be replicated? G2/M: Has DNA synthesis been completed correctly? Spindle Checkpoint (Metaphase Checkpoint): Are the chromosomes aligned properly? Each checkpoint is regulated by a different Cdk-Cyclin Pairs (Cyclin Dependent Kinase) Kinase enzymes function by adding phosphate groups to molecules to activate/inhibit their activity Regulating the amount of Cyclin produced, regulates Cdk activity Internal and External Signals to stimulate a cell to divide Ex: Platelet Derived Growth Factor - will stimulate cell division Proto-oncogenes - Activate cell division Tumor-Suppressor Genes (ex. p53) - Inhibit cell division Cancer Benign versus Malignant Tumors Meiosis: Compare and Contrast with Mitosis Homologous Chromosomes - importance in meiosis? (They MUST find each other) Produces Haploid Cells Meiosis I - reduces the number of chromosomes by half (Homologous chromosomes sepate) Meiosis II - sister chromatids split and results in the formation of 4 gametes Results in genetic variation Crossing Over Fertilization RESTORES the diploid number Errors in Meiosis: Chromosomal Mutations Disjunction versus Nondisjunction Nondisjunction events involving sex chromosomes do not usually result in spontaneous abortion Most autosomal chromosomal mutations result in spontaneous abortion Amniocentesis and Karyotyping Genetic Testing - Ethics Chromosomal Mutations Mendelian Genetics Gregor Mendel and his experiments with pea plants P, F1, and F2 generations Dominant versus Recessive Alleles Genotype versus Phenotype Test Cross Alleles - How many alleles do you inherit for a particular gene? Law of Segregation and Law of Independent Assortment – For genes are are UNLINKED Ratios of importance: Aa x Aa ; AaBb x BbBb ; AaBb x aabb (for unlinked genes) Chi-Square Analysis of data – Formula Will be Provided to you – Along with chi square table Extensions of Mendel’s Laws (linked genes, incomplete dominance, codominance, multiple alleles, Sex-linked traits) Chloroplasts and Mitochondria carry their own DNA that codes for other traits Linked genes versus Unlinked Genes Recombination Frequency – Memorize this Formula Gene Mapping using recombination frequencies: 1% = 1 map unit Environment can influence gene expression Topic 4: Molecular Genetics Study Guide History Of DNA - Experiments of Importance Griffth Hershey and Chase Avery, Macleod and McCarty Chargoff Rosalind Franklin and Wilkins Watson and Crick DNA versus RNA – Structure, Function – Compare and Contrast DNA Replication Semi-conservative Enzymes involved in DNA replication: Topoisomerase Helicase DNA Polymerase DNA Ligase Where does DNA replication begin? (Prokaryotes have one, Eukaryotes have many) In which direction can DNA be synthesized? (5’ 3’ OR 3’ 5’) Leading versus Lagging Strand Okazaki Fragments Central Dogma of Biology Transcription Post-Transcription Processing What gets removed? What gets spliced together? What gets added? Does this occur in Prokaryotes? Alternative Splicing Translation Ribosomes tRNA Genetic Code – codons in mRNA Compare/Contrast Protein Synthesis between Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes Mutations Types of Mutations - Point versus Frameshift Silent, Missense, Nonsense Insertion, Deletion What causes mutations? How might a mutated protein affect a cell? – link to levels of protein structure Are all mutations harmful? Prokaryotic Gene Expression Operons Components: Regulatory Genes -> Code for Repressor Proteins, Promoter, Operator, Structural Genes Inducer Operon - For metabolic pathways that are normally turned “off” Ex: Lac Operon Repressor Operons - For metabolic pathways that are normally turned “on” Ex: Trp Operon Significance of using operons - Why have bacteria that have operons continue to remain in existence What genes are always turned on? (examples) Eukaryotic Gene Expression Why are there multiple points of gene regulation? Why is it essential that multicellular organisms have tightly regulated gene expression **Enables cells to remain specialized and carry out their specific functions and save energy DNA Packing Histones - Nucleosomes Euchromatin Heterochromatin Methylation Pre-transcription - Role of Transcription Factors - What are they and why are they required? Enhancer Sequences – Activator Proteins bind to these sequences – Allows RNA Polymerase bind Regulating the availability of transcription factors in different cell types helps regulation transcription Post Transcription Regulation – Alternative Splicing; Breakdown of mRNA Pre-Translation - Delaying start of Protein Synthesis Post-Translation - Delaying Protein Activation, Protein Breakdown Biotechnology PCR – polymerase chain reaction Gel Electrophoresis Restriction Enzymes Genetic Engineering – Plasmids Biotransformation Scientific Method and Experimentation