Download Observational learning

Matakuliah : L0014/Psikologi Umum
Tahun
: 2007
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
Pertemuan 7 & 8 (OFC)
Pertemuan 9 (F2F)
DEFINITION OF LEARNING
• Any relatively permanent change in behavior brought about through
experiences – through interaction with environment
• the acquisition and development of memories and behaviors,
including skills, knowledge, understanding, values, and wisdom. It is
the goal of education, and the product of experience.
• Permanent vs. temporary
• Result of experiences vs. biological causes
BINA NUSANTARA
2
Types of Learning (1)
NON ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING
Habituation
–
–
–
There is a progressive diminution of behavioral response probability with repetition of a stimulus.
It is another form of integration. An animal first responds to a stimulus, but if it is neither rewarding nor
harmful the animal reduces subsequent responses.
One example of this can be seen in small song birds - if a stuffed owl (or similar predator) is put into the cage,
the birds initially react to it as though it were a real predator. Soon the birds react less, showing habituation.
If another stuffed owl is introduced (or the same one removed and re-introduced), the birds react to it as
though it were a predator, showing that it is only a very specific stimulus that is habituated to (namely, one
particular unmoving owl in one place).
Sensitization
–
–
The progressive amplification of a response follows repeated administrations of a stimulus (Bell et al., 1995).
An everyday example of this mechanism is the repeated tonic stimulation of peripheral nerves that will occur
if a person rubs his arm continuously. After a while, this stimulation will create a warm sensation that will
eventually turn painful. The pain is the result of the progressively amplified synaptic response of the
peripheral nerves warning the person that the stimulation is harmful. Sensitization is thought to underlie both
adaptive as well as maladaptive learning processes in the organism.
Imprinting
–
–
Any kind of phase-sensitive learning (learning occurring at a particular age or a particular life stage) that is
rapid and apparently independent of the consequences of behavior.
It was first used to describe situations in which an animal or person learns the characteristics of some
stimulus, which is therefore said to be "imprinted" onto the subject
BINA NUSANTARA
3
Types of Learning
ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING
• Classical conditioning involves repeatedly pairing an unconditioned stimulus
(which unfailingly evokes a particular response) with another stimulus (which
does not normally evoke the response). Following conditioning, the response
occurs both to the unconditioned stimulus and to the other, unrelated stimulus
(now referred to as the "conditioned stimulus"). The response to the conditioned
stimulus is termed a conditioned response
• Operant conditioning is the use of consequences to modify the occurrence and
form of behavior. Operant conditioning deals with the modification of voluntary
behavior
• Observational learning, The most basic learning process is imitation, one's
personal repetition of an observed process, such as a smile. Thus an imitation will
take one's time (attention to the details), space (a location for learning), skills (or
practice), and other resources (for example, a protected area). Through copying,
most infants learn how to hunt (i.e., direct one's attention), feed and perform
most basic tasks necessary for survival.
BINA NUSANTARA
4
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (1)
Pavlov presented dogs with food, and
measured their salivary response (how
much they drooled). Then he began
ringing a bell just before presenting the
food. At first, the dogs did not begin
salivating until the food was presented.
After a while, however, the dogs began
to salivate when the sound of the bell
was presented.
They learned to associate the sound of
the bell with the presentation of the
food. As far as their immediate
physiological responses were concerned,
the sound of the bell became equivalent
to the presentation of the food.
BINA NUSANTARA
5
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (2)
terminology
• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
– The stimulus that can elicit a response without any learning – inborn
– Ex. The meat – the food
• Unconditioned Response (UCR)
– An unlearn, inborn reaction to an unconditioned stimulus
– Ex. Saliva
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
– A stimulus that comes to elicit responses as a result of being paired with an
unconditioned stimulus
• Conditioned Response (CR)
– A response that is similar or identical to the unconditioned response that comes to be
elicited by a conditioned stimulus
BINA NUSANTARA
6
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (3)
• A form of learning in which a previously neutral stimulus (CS) is paired with an
unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to elicit a conditioned response (CR) that is
identical to or very similar to unconditioned response (UCR)
UCS
UCR
CS + UCS
UCR
CS
CR = UCR
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_conditioning
BINA NUSANTARA
7
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (4)
Application
•
John B. Watson's Little Albert
–
–
–
•
proposed that emotions (such as fear) can be conditioned in humans.
To study this, Watson conditioned an eleven month old child, Albert, to fear a various neutral
objects (including a rabbit, a dog and some wool) by repetitively pairing their presence with a
loud noise. Resulted in little Albert displaying severe fear responses to the previously un feared
objects.
The goal of Watson's experiment had been to prove that behavior is learned, in contrast to the
then-prevalent, Freudian belief that behavior came from the unconscious.
Behavioral Therapies
–
–
Aversion Therapy is designed to eliminate addictive behavior
• Aversion therapy is a form of psychiatric or psychological treatment in which the patient is
exposed to a stimulus while simultaneously being subjected to some form of discomfort.
This conditioning is intended to cause the patient to associate the stimulus with unpleasant
sensations, and to then stop a certain behavior
Systematic Desensitization
Patients might learn that the object of their phobias or fears are not so fearful if they can safely relive
the feared stimulus. However, anxiety often obstructs such recovery. This obstruction is overcome by
reintroducing the fear-producing object gradually by a process known as reciprocal inhibitions. A person
constructs a hierarchy of events leading to the feared situation. This hierarchy is approached step by
step and anxiety is relieved at every level. The fear is eventually removed if the therapy is performed
correctly.
BINA NUSANTARA
8
OPERANT CONDITIONING (1)
• Learning in which the consequences of behavior lead to changes in the probability
of its occurrence
• Operant conditioning, sometimes called instrumental conditioning or instrumental
learning, was first extensively studied by Edward L. Thorndike (1874-1949), who
observed the behavior of cats trying to escape from home-made puzzle boxes
BINA NUSANTARA
9
OPERANT CONDITIONING (2)
The Skinner Box
BINA NUSANTARA
10
OPERANT CONDITIONING (3)
The four procedures
•
Positive reinforcement occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by a favorable stimulus
(commonly seen as pleasant) that increases the frequency of that behavior.
–
•
Negative reinforcement occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of an aversive
stimulus (commonly seen as unpleasant) thereby increasing that behavior's frequency.
–
•
In the Skinner box experiment, negative reinforcement can be a loud noise continuously sounding inside the
rat's cage until it engages in the target behavior, such as pressing a lever, upon which the loud noise is
removed.
Positive punishment (also called "Punishment by contingent stimulation") occurs when a behavior
(response) is followed by an aversive stimulus,
–
•
In the Skinner box experiment, a stimulus such as food or sugar solution can be delivered when the rat
engages in a target behavior, such as pressing a lever.
such as introducing a shock or loud noise, resulting in a decrease in that behavior.
Negative punishment (also called "Punishment by contingent withdrawal") occurs when a behavior
(response) is followed by the removal of a favorable stimulus,
–
such as taking away a child's toy following an undesired behavior, resulting in a decrease in that behavior.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning
BINA NUSANTARA
11
BINA NUSANTARA
12
OPERANT CONDITIONING (4)
Positive Reinforcement
•
2 important issues
1.
Timing : must be given within a short time following the response
–
2.
•
Consistency in the delivery of reinforcement
Primary & Secondary Reinforcement
–
–
•
Delay of reinforcement : the passage of time between the response and the positive reinforcement
that leads to reduced efficiency of operant conditioning
Primary : innate positive reinforcers that do not have to be acquired through learning
Secondary : learned positive reinforcers
Schedules of Positive Reinforcement
1.
2.
3.
4.
Fix ratio : a reinforcer is given only after a specified number of responses
Variable ratio : a reinforcer is given only after a varying number of responses
Fix interval : a reinforcer is given following the 1st response occurring after a predetermined
period of time
Variable interval : a reinforcer is given following the 1st response occurring after a variable
amount of time
BINA NUSANTARA
13
OPERANT CONDITIONING (5)
Positive Reinforcement
• Shapping – the methods of successive
approximations
– A strategy of positively reinforcing
behaviors that are successively more
similar to desired behaviors
BINA NUSANTARA
14
OPERANT CONDITIONING (6)
Negative Reinforcement
•
Occurs when
1. A behavior is followed by the removal or the avoidance of negative event
2. The probability that the behavior will occur in the future increases as a
result
•
2 types of conditioning
1. Escape conditioning
–
The behavior is reinforced because it causes a negative event to cease
2. Avoidance Conditioning
–
The behavior is reinforced because it prevents something negative from
happening
BINA NUSANTARA
15
OPERANT CONDITIONING (7)
Punishment
•
A negative consequence of behavior, which leads to a decrease in the frequency
of the behavior that produces it
•
5 dangers :
1. The use of punishment is often reinforcing to the punisher
2. Punishment often has a generalized inhibiting effects on the individual
3. We commonly react to physical punishment by learning to dislike the person who
inflicts the pain and perhaps by reacting aggressively toward that person
4. Criticism trap : an increase in the frequency of a (-) behavior that often follows the
use of the criticism, reinforcing the behavior it is intended to punish
5. It does not teach the individual how to act more appropriately
BINA NUSANTARA
16
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING (1)
BINA NUSANTARA
17
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING (2)
vicarious learning or social learning
• is learning that occurs as a function of observing, retaining and
replicating behavior observed in others.
• It is most associated with the work of psychologist Albert Bandura,
who implemented some of the seminal studies in the area and
initiated social learning theory.
BINA NUSANTARA
18
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING (3)
Four conditions required for a person to successfully model the behaviour of someone else:
1. Attention to the model
–
A person must first pay attention to a person engaging in a certain behavior (the model).
2. Retention of details
–
Once attending to the observed behavior, the observer must be able to effectively remember
what the model has done.
3. Motor reproduction
–
The observer must be able to replicate the behavior being observed. For example, juggling
cannot be effectively learned by observing a model juggler if the observer does not already have
the ability to perform the component actions (throwing and catching a ball).
4. Motivation and Opportunity
–
The observer must be motivated to carry out the action they have observed and remembered,
and must have the opportunity to do so. For example, a suitably skilled person must want to
replicate the behavior of a model juggler, and needs to have an appropriate number of items to
juggle at hand.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observational_learning
BINA NUSANTARA
19
EXTINCTION
• The process of unlearning a learned response because of the removal of the
original source of learning
≠ Partial reinforcement effect
the phenomenon that responses that have been reinforced on variable ratio or variable interval schedules are more
difficult to extinguish that responses that have been continuously reinforced
≠ Response prevention
the prevention of avoidance responses to ensure that the individual sees that the negative consequences will not
occur to speed up the extinction of avoidance responses
≠ Spontaneous recovery
a temporary increase in the strength of a CR, which is likely to occur during extinction after the passage of time
≠ Disinhibition
a temporary increase in the strength of a extinguished response caused by an unrelated stimulus event
≠ Operant Extinction
the awakening and eventual disapperance of a response because it is no longer reinforced
BINA NUSANTARA
20
THEORETICAL INTEPRETATION OF LEARNING
• Place learning
– Cognitive map : an inferred mental awareness of the structure of physical
space or related elements
• Latent learning
• Insight learning and learning sets
BINA NUSANTARA
21