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Introduction to Learning Theory and Behavioral Psychology ► ► Learning can be defined as the process leading to relatively permanent behavioral change or potential behavioral change. In other words, as we learn, we alter the way we perceive our environment, the way we interpret the incoming stimuli, and therefore the way we interact, or behave. ► ► John B. Watson (18781958) was the first to study how the process of learning affects our behavior, and he formed the school of thought known as Behaviorism. The central idea behind behaviorism is that only observable behaviors are worthy of research since other abstraction such as a person’s mood or thoughts are too subjective. WWW.SMSO.NET Classical and Operant Conditioning ► Classical Conditioning. One important type of learning, Classical Conditioning, was actually discovered accidentally by Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936). Pavlov was a Russian physiologist who discovered this phenomenon while doing research on digestion. His research was aimed at better understanding the digestive patterns in dogs. During his experiments, he would put meat powder in the mouths of dogs who had tubes inserted into various organs to measure bodily responses. ► What he discovered was that the dogs began to salivate before the meat powder was presented to them. ► Then, the dogs began to salivate as soon as the person feeding them would enter the room. He soon began to gain interest in this phenomenon and abandoned his digestion research in favor of his now famous Classical Conditioning study. ► WWW.SMSO.NET Principles of Classical (Respondent) Conditioning ► ► 1. Pavlov found that, when a neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus, eventually, the CS also produces the salivation response. 2. The stimulus that naturally elicits the target response is called the unconditioned stimulus and the response it elicits is called the unconditioned response. The neutral stimulus is called the conditioned stimulus and the response it produces after conditioning is called the conditioned response. UCS: unconditional stimulus ► stimulus which evokes regular, measurable response ► ► ► UCR: unconditional response measurable response regularly evoked by UCS ► ► CS: Conditional stimulus novel response which does not evoke UCR until after pairing with UCS CR: Conditional Response ► similar to UCR, evoked by CS ► WWW.SMSO.NET Principles of classical conditioning ► Extinction – ► Spontaneous recovery – ► ► ► ► Higher-order-conditioning – ► Stimulus generalization – ► ► ► Stimulus discrimination – when the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus the conditioned response eventually disappears After a response that has been extinguished, it may spontaneously reappear after the passage of time with exposure to the conditioned stimulus a neutral stimulus can become a conditioned stimulus by being paired with an already established conditioned stimulus After a stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus for some response, similar stimuli may produce the same reaction different responses are triggered by stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus in some way WWW.SMSO.NET Classical conditioning in real life Examples of behaviours learned through classical conditioning include taste preferences, likes and dislikes and fears and phobias (little Albert example) Drug reaction can be explained through the principles of classical conditioning ► ► ► The drug causes a compensatory (oppositional) bodily response Environmental cues become condition stimuli for this response, increasing craving This compensatory response may be responsible for drug tolerance and overdosing Other examples include response to environmental cues in chemotherapy and dental treatment WWW.SMSO.NET Therapy Techniques Based on Classical Conditioning ► ► ► Counterconditioning - reducing a conditioned response (anxiety, for example) by establishing an incompatible response (relaxation) to the same conditioned stimulus (a snake, for example). Wolpe developed a treatment program for anxiety that was based on the principles of counterconditioning. anxiety symptoms could be reduced (or inhibited) when the stimuli to the anxiety were presented in a graded order and systematically paired with a relaxation response-- systematic desensitization WWW.SMSO.NET Therapy Techniques Based on Classical Conditioning ► Treatment techniques that have developed to reverse classically conditioned fears include counterconditioning or systematic desensitization ► Systematic Desensitization consistently proven to be effective in the treatment of anxiety and phobias events which cause anxiety are recalled in imagination then a relaxation technique is used to dissipate the anxiety with sufficient repetition through practice, the imagined event loses its anxiety-provoking power shown to be effective when self-administered as well ► ► ► ► ► WWW.SMSO.NET Therapy Techniques Based on Classical Conditioning ► There are three steps in the self-administered systematic desensitization procedure: ► 1. Relaxation; ► 2. Constructing an anxiety hierarchy; ► 3. Pairing relaxation with the situations described in your anxiety hierarchy. WWW.SMSO.NET Example of Systematic Desensitization Example-- Fear of Flying Items included in an anxiety hierarchy describe situations which produce varying levels of anxiety, some more worrisome than others ► Describe the items on your anxiety hierarchy in sufficient detail to enable you to vividly imagine each one. It might be sufficient to say, “Standing in line at the ticket counter,” but saying, “Standing in a long line at the crowded ticket counter, with nothing to do but wait to get my luggage checked,” might be more graphic. ► Items are most effective if they can help you experience the event in your imagination, not just describe it. ► ► WWW.SMSO.NET Creating your Anxiety Hierarchy ► ► ► Attempt to create about 16 or 17 situations at the beginning. Most people tend to discard some items in the sorting process, so you can expect to end up with about 10 to 15 items in your final hierarchy. To aid in sorting the items, write each one on a separate index card. The situations or scenes in your hierarchy should represent a fairly well-spaced progression of anxiety. Grade the anxiety of each item by assigning it a number on a scale from 0 to 100, where 100 is the highest level of anxiety imaginable and 0 is no anxiety (complete relaxation). Write this number on the back of the index card for the item being graded. WWW.SMSO.NET Creating your Anxiety Hierarchy ► ► ► ► ► ► ► When each item has an anxiety grade, sort the cards into 5 piles. Each pile will represent a different category of anxiety, as follows: Pile Anxiety Grade Low Anxiety1–19 Medium Low Anxiety20–39 Medium Anxiety40–59 Medium High Anxiety60–79 High Anxiety80–100 Goal here is to end up with at least two items in each pile. ► When you have finished, combine all the cards into one pile that is ordered from lowest to highest anxiety. ► Set the cards aside for one day. ► It helps to check the accuracy of your ordering by shuffling the cards the next day or so. Without looking at the grades on the back of the cards, reorder them. Then check the grades to see if your second ordering is the same as the first. If not, make some adjustments. ► WWW.SMSO.NET Creating your Anxiety Hierarchy Sample Fear of Flying Anxiety Hierarchy ► Note -- any item’s relative anxiety level does not necessarily relate to its temporal sequence. ► • ► ► ► ► ► ► ► ► ► ► ► ► ► ► ► ► ► Packing luggage Making reservations Driving to the airport Realizing you have to make a flight Checking in Waiting for boarding Calling for Boarding Boarding the plane In-flight service Moving around the cabin Climbing to cruising altitude Descending Waiting for departure Taking off Landing Upset WWW.SMSO.NET Overview of the Pairing Procedure The overall goal of systematic desensitization is to reduce the ability of certain situations to cause anxiety. You will accomplish this by confronting each item of your anxiety hierarchy while you are in a deep state of relaxation. ► Practice systematic desensitization in the same environment you use to practice relaxation. Your systematic desensitization sessions should not ► exceed 30 minutes. ► Also, you should not attempt to desensitize yourself to more than three of your anxiety hierarchy items per session. WWW.SMSO.NET Abbreviated Instructions ► ► ► ► ► ► ► ► Card 1--Relax. 2--Read the anxiety situation. 3--Imagine the situation for a tolerable time. 4--Stop. Determine your anxiety level. Re-establish relaxation. 5--Re-read the anxiety situation. Imagine the situation for a tolerable time. 6--Stop. Determine your anxiety level. If anxiety is present, return to Card 2. If no anxiety, go to Card 7. 7--Next item. Return to Card 1. ► When you are desensitizing high anxiety items, repeat one cycle of the desensitization process after you have reached a level without anxiety, just to reinforce your ability to relax in that situation. WWW.SMSO.NET B. F. Skinner ► Perhaps the most well known Behaviorist is B. F. Skinner (1904-1990). Skinner followed much of Watson’s research and findings, but believed that internal states could influence behavior just as external stimuli. He is considered to be a Radical Behaviorist because of this belief, although nowadays it is believed that both internal and external stimuli influence our behavior. WWW.SMSO.NET Operant Conditioning ► ► ► Thorndike’s law of effect – behavior is controlled by consequences (free will on the individual’s part) BF Skinner – behavior is determined by the environment (no free will) Reinforcement and punishment – the carrot and the stick Behavior becomes more or less likely depending on its consequences Reinforcer: A stimulus that causes reinforcement. A stimulus which increases the probability that a response will occur. ► Reinforcement: The effect of the stimulus. ► Primary reinforcer: Something that is naturally reinforcing and satisfies a natural drive, e.g. food, drink, sex. Primary reinforcers/punishers –satisfy biological needs Secondary reinforcers/punishers – reinforce through association with other reinforcers/punishers ► ► Secondary or Generalized reinforcer: Stimuli that are not reinforcing in themselves, in that they satisfy no natural drive on their own, but they are so often paired with primary reinforcers that they become reinforcing themselves, e.g. money, praise, prestige. WWW.SMSO.NET REIFROCEMENT Positive reinforcer: A stimulus that when added to a situation, increases the likelihood that a response will occur. ► Positive reinforcement: reward ► Negative reinforcer: A stimulus, that when removed from a situation, increases the likelihood that a response will occur, relief. ► Negative reinforcement: relief ► Punishment – try to decrease the likelihood of a response ► Positive punishment – something unpleasant occurs ► Negative punishment – something pleasant is removed There are many types of reinforcement in everyday life. Primary reinforcers are effective without having been associated with other reinforcers. Secondary reinforcers are effective only when associated with primary reinforcers. ► Positive reinforcers strengthen responses when they are presented. Negative reinforcers strengthen the behaviors that caused them to be removed. ► ► WWW.SMSO.NET TYPES OF REIFORCEMNT AND PUNISHMENT INCREASED PRESENTED REMOVED WWW.SMSO.NET DECREASED Principles of operant conditioning ► ► ► ► ► Extinction – a previously learned response stops because it is no longer reinforced Spontaneous recovery – Return of a response that has been extinguished Immediate consequences are more effective than delayed consequences Stimulus generalization – Stimuli similar to that in the initial learning may produce the same reaction Stimulus discrimination – the ability to distinguish between similar stimuli and to respond only to the one that results in the reinforcers WWW.SMSO.NET Schedules of reinforcement ► ► ► ► The pattern of delivery of reinforcements; can have powerful effects on rate, form, and timing of behavior Continuous reinforcement – reinforcing a response each time it occurs; most effective for initial learning Partial, intermittent, or variable schedules – reinforcement occurs only after a certain amount of time has passed or after a certain (sometimes random) number of responses have been made; these schedules make responses more resistant to extinction when reinforcement is discontinued Shaping – Method of getting a response to occur by reinforcing successive approximations to the desired response WWW.SMSO.NET PUNISHMENT Punishment: the goal of punishment is to decrease the probability of a behavior Type I Punishment: presentation punishment, presenting an aversive stimulus following a behavior. ► Type II Punishment: removal punishment, removing a pleasant stimulus following a behavior. ► Negative aspects of punishment: ► ► ► it emphasizes the undesirable responses and does not necessarily illustrate the desirable response ► it is often associated with highly undesirable emotional side effects that often become associated with the person doling out the punishment rather than with the behavior being punished ► it usually does not eliminate the behavior but suppresses it ► it often does not work: supporting studies, Sears, Macoby & Lewin (1957) severely punishing children for being aggressive increases the likelihood that they will be aggressive, and being unduly punitive when toilet training results in a greater likelihood of bed-wetting. ► WWW.SMSO.NET Areas of application of behavior modification: ► ► ► ► ► ► ► ► ► ► ► parenting education severe psychological and developmental problems (schizophrenia, autism, mental retardation) clinical behavior therapy self-management medical and health care (direct treatment, establishing treatment compliance, promotion of healthy living, stress management, management of care givers) gerontology behavioral community psychology (applications to socially significant problems in unstructured community settings where the behavior of individuals is not considered deviant in the traditional sense) organizational behavior management sport psychology (improving athletic skills, strategies for motivating practice and endurance training, changing the behavior of coaches, preparing for competition) behavioral assessment WWW.SMSO.NET TOKEN ECONOMY ► ► ► A behavior therapy procedure, based on operant conditioning principles, in which institutionalized patients are given tokens, such as poker chips, for socially constructive behavior, and are withheld when unwanted behaviors are exhibited. The tokens themselves can be exchanged for desirable items and activities such as tea or coffee and extra time away from the ward. Token economy, in short term trials, was effective at reducing the negative symptoms of schizophrenia. . For example, patients in a mental hospital are given tokens they can exchange for food or coffee when they make their beds, groom themselves, get up and go to sleep at the correct hours, and so on; they are fined (tokens are taken away) for assault or destruction of property. A classic study was conducted in a mental hospital with psychiatric patients who had difficulty performing expected behaviors (Ayllon & Azrin, 1968). The researchers chose a number of simple grooming behaviors, including face washing, hair combing, teeth brushing, bed making, and dressing properly. The researchers first recorded baseline, or normally occurring, frequencies of the behaviors. Then they gave the patients a token every time the proper behavior was performed. The tokens could be exchanged for food and personal items at the hospital drugstore. The patients significantly increased the frequency of the desired behaviors when they were reinforced with tokens. WWW.SMSO.NET Other Techniques Time-out: weaken undesired behavior by temporarily removing positive reinforcement. ► Example: Sending a student who frequently interrupts classroom routine to sit in an empty room for 10 min. (Punishment II) ► Response Cost: tokens are withdrawn when child makes an undesired response ► Extinction: weaken undesired behavior by ignoring it. ► Example: A mother ignoring a whining child, or a teacher ignoring a student who speaks out of turn. ► ► WWW.SMSO.NET FLOODING ► ► ► ► This is the type of exposure therapy that starts with the most feared rather than the least feared stimulus is called flooding; If conducted only in the imagination, it is sometimes called implosion The therapist controls the timing and content of the scenes to be imagined or confronted, and instead of trying to relax, the patient is told to experience the fear fully until it subsides. Flooding is quicker than systematic desensitization, but relapse may be more common, and the procedure is simply too frightening for many patients. WWW.SMSO.NET FLOODING ► ► ► ► The standard behavioral treatment for compulsive rituals (checking, counting, washing, and so on) is known as exposure and response prevention. This is a variant of flooding in which the ritual is treated as a form of escape or avoidance. The patient is placed in the situation that provokes ritualized behavior and prevented from responding in the habitual way ► . A compulsive washer, for example, is allowed to become dirty or even made dirty and then prevented from washing. The water might be turned off for most of the day. Exposure reduces hypersensitivity to dirt and the associated anxiety, while response prevention eventually eliminates (extinguishes) compulsive washing. WWW.SMSO.NET SHAPING ► successive approximation Shaping; in operant conditioning, the gradual process of reinforcing behaviors that get closer to some final desired behavior. Operant conditioning can be used to shape behavior so that patients perform complex actions or acquire skills that were formerly beyond their capacities. ► The method is to approximate the desired behavior gradually, rewarding each small step toward mastery. ► Shaping is often necessary for severely impaired people whose behavioral repertoire is very limited. For example, the mouth movements of a mute autistic child are reinforced at first, then sounds, and later only sounds closer and closer to normal speech. ► The process of dressing is divided into stages and the child is given candy or applause for completing each partial task. ► WWW.SMSO.NET SOCIAL LEARNING THEORIES ► ► ► Social learning, as described by Albert Bandura, deals with the fact that a fundamental means of learning is through observing and imitating of models. This theory is behaviorist due to Bandura's emphasis on the fact that individuals learn to imitate a behavior because they are reinforced for that behavior. Teachers serve as models who shape and influence their students' behavior. Books, pictures, television and movies also present models to children and adolescents. An important tenet of Bandura's theory is that exposure to highly esteemed models can alter students' attitudes. That is, social learning through imitation can significantly modify students' behavior and help them acquire skills. WWW.SMSO.NET Social Learning Theories ► General characteristics ► Emphasize the importance of learning by observing people in social contexts Similarities to behaviorism ► ► Agree with laws of conditioning Recognize importance of reinforcers and the environment ► ► ► Differences from behaviourism: Include the importance of higher-level mental processes Emphasize the role of attitudes, beliefs, and expectations Regard the environment, behaviour, and a person’s internalized motives and cognitions as forming a circle in which all elements mutually affect each other WWW.SMSO.NET Observational Learning ► Definition Observational learning, also called social learning theory, occurs when an observer's behavior changes after viewing the behavior of a model. ► An observer's behavior can be affected by the positive or negative consequences-called vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment-- of a model's behavior. WWW.SMSO.NET Processes of Learning by observation Learning by observation involves four separate processes: attention, retention, production and motivation 1) Attention: 2) Retention: Observers cannot learn unless they pay attention to what's happening around them. This process is influenced by characteristics of the model, such as how much one likes or identifies with the model, and by characteristics of the observer, such as the observer's expectations or level of emotional arousal. WWW.SMSO.NET Observers must not only recognize the observed behavior but also remember it at some later time. This process depends on the observer's ability to code or structure the information in an easily remembered form or to mentally or physically rehearse the model's actions. Processes of Learning by observation 3) Motor Production: Observers must be physically and/intellectually capable of producing the act. In many cases the observer possesses the necessary responses. But sometimes, reproducing the model's actions may involve skills the observer has not yet acquired. It is one thing to carefully watch a circus juggler, but it is quite another to go home and repeat those acts. 4) Motivation: In general, observers will perform the act only if they have some motivation or reason to do so. The presence of reinforcement or punishment, either to the model or directly to the observer, becomes most important in this process. WWW.SMSO.NET SUMMARY OF SOCIAL LEARNING (OBSERVATIONAL) THEORY A person's behavior can affect his feelings about himself and his attitudes and beliefs about others. Likewise, much of what a person knows comes from environmental resources such as television, parents, and books. ► Environment also affects behavior: what a person observes can powerfully influence what he does. ► But a person's behavior also contributes to his environment ► The relationship between these elements is called reciprocal ► ► ► Attention and retention account for acquisition or learning of a model's behavior; production and motivation control the performance. Human development reflects the complex interaction of the person, the person's behavior, and the environment.. determinism WWW.SMSO.NET Other types of Learning ► ► ► ► ► ► ► ► Cognitive processes Tolman’s experiment with rats demonstrated latent learning Latent learning is learning that is not immediately revealed through a change in behavior and occurs without obvious reinforcement Formation of cognitive maps is a form of latent learning Insight Learning that appears to occur in a flash Behaviorists – explanation is in terms of prior reinforcement history Cognitive theorists – requires mentally combining previously learned responses in new ways WWW.SMSO.NET