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Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Chapter 7: Conditioning and Learning Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Learning: Some Key Terms • Learning: Relatively permanent change in • behavior due to experience – Does NOT include temporary changes due to disease, injury, maturation, injury, or drugs, since these do NOT qualify as learning Reinforcement: Any event that increases the probability that a response will recur Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Learning: Some More Key Terms • Response: Any identifiable behavior – Internal: Faster heartbeat – Observable: Eating, scratching Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Learning: Two More Key Terms • Antecedents: Events that precede a response • Consequences: Effects that follow a response Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Classical Conditioning • Ivan Pavlov: Russian physiologist who initially • • • was studying digestion Used dogs to study salivation when dogs were presented with meat powder Also known as Pavlovian or Respondent Conditioning Reflex: Automatic, nonlearned response Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Figure 7.3 Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Table 7.1 Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Basics of Classical Conditioning Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Principles of Classical Conditioning • Acquisition: Training period when a response • • is strengthened Higher Order Conditioning: A conditioned stimulus is used to reinforce further learning Expectancy: Anticipation concerning future events or relationships Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 More Classical Conditioning Terms • Extinction: Weakening of a conditioned • response through removal of reinforcement Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of a learned response following apparent extinction Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Figure 7.4 Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Figure 7.5 Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 More Principles of Classical Conditioning • Stimulus Generalization: A tendency to • respond to stimuli that are similar, but not identical to, a conditioned stimulus (e.g., responding to a buzzer or a hammer banging when the conditioning stimulus was a bell) Stimulus Discrimination: The learned ability to respond differently to similar stimuli (e.g., Anya will respond differently to various bells: alarms, school, timer) Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Features and Phases of Classical Conditioning Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Figure 7.6 Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Classical Conditioning in Humans • Phobia: Intense, unrealistic, irrational fear of • a specific situation or object (e.g., arachnophobia, fear of spiders) Conditioned Emotional Response (CER): Learned emotional reaction to a previously neutral stimulus Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Classical Conditioning in Human (cont.) • Desensitization: Exposing phobic people • gradually to feared stimuli while they stay calm and relaxed Vicarious Classical Conditioning: Learning to respond emotionally to a stimulus by observing another’s emotional reactions Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Figure 7.7 Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Operant Conditioning (Instrumental Learning) • Learning based on the consequences of • responding; we associate responses with their consequences Law of Effect (Thorndike): The probability of a response is altered by the effect it has; responses that lead to desired effects are repeated; those that lead to undesired effects are not Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 More Operant Conditioning Terms • Operant Reinforcer: Any event that follows a • • response and increases its likelihood of recurring Conditioning Chamber (Skinner Box): Apparatus designed to study operant conditioning in animals Response-Contingent Reinforcement: Reinforcement given only when a particular response occurs Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Rat in a Skinner Box Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Figure 7.8 Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Figure 7.9 Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Timing of Reinforcement • Operant reinforcement most effective when • • given immediately after a correct response Effectiveness of reinforcement is inversely related to time elapsed after correct response occurs Response Chain: A linked series of actions that leads to reinforcement Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Timing of Reinforcement (cont.) • Superstitious Behavior: Behavior that is • • repeated to produce reinforcement, even though it is not necessary Shaping: Molding responses gradually in a step-by-step fashion to a desired pattern Successive Approximations: Ever-closer matches Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Operant Extinction • Definition: When learned responses that are • NOT reinforced gradually fade away Negative Attention Seeking: Using misbehavior to gain attention Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Figure 7.10 Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Figure 7.12 Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 More Operant Conditioning Terms • Positive Reinforcement: When a response is • followed by a reward or other positive event Negative Reinforcement: When a response is followed by the removal of an unpleasant event (e.g., the bells in Fannie’s car stop when she puts the seatbelt on); ends discomfort Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Punishment • Any event that follows a response and • decreases the likelihood of it recurring (e.g., a spanking) Response Cost: Reinforcer or positive thing is removed (e.g., losing Xbox™ privileges) Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Figure 7.1 Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Types of Reinforcers • Primary Reinforcer: Nonlearned and natural; • • satisfies physiological needs (e.g., food, water, sex) Intracranial Stimulation (ICS): Natural primary reinforcer; involves direct electrical activation of brain’s “pleasure centers” Secondary Reinforcer: Learned reinforcer (e.g., money, grades, approval, praise) Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 More Reinforcer Types • Token Reinforcer: Tangible secondary • reinforcer (e.g., money, gold stars, poker chips) Social Reinforcer: Provided by other people (e.g., learned desires for attention and approval) Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Figure 7.14 Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Figure 7.16 Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Feedback and Knowledge of Results • Information about the effect a response had • Knowledge of Results (KR): Increased feedback; informational Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Programmed Instruction • Information is presented in small amounts, • • gives immediate practice, and provides continuous feedback Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI): Learning is aided by computer-presented information and exercises Educational Simulations: Explore imaginary situations or “microworld” that simulates realworld problems (e.g., “The Sims” computer simulation) Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Figure 7.17 Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Figure 7.18 Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Partial Reinforcement • Reinforcers do NOT follow every response • Schedules of Reinforcement: Plans for • • determining which responses will be reinforced Continuous Reinforcement: A reinforcer follows every correct response Partial Reinforcement Effect: Responses acquired with partial reinforcement are very resistant to extinction Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Schedules of Partial Reinforcement • Fixed Ratio Schedule (FR): A set number of • correct responses must be made to obtain a reinforcer Variable Ratio Schedule (VR): Varied number of correct responses must be made to get a reinforcer Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Schedules of Partial Reinforcement (cont.) • Fixed Interval Schedule (FI): The first correct • response made after a certain amount of time has elapsed is reinforced Variable Interval Schedule (VI): Reinforcement is given for the first correct response made after a varied amount of time Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Figure 7.11 Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Figure 7.19 Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Stimulus Control • Stimuli that consistently precede a rewarded • response tend to influence when and where the response will occur Operant Stimulus Generalization: Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to those that preceded operant reinforcement Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Watson & Rayner’s Research with Little Albert Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Stimulus Control (cont.) • Operant Stimulus Discrimination: Occurs • when one learns to differentiate between antecedent stimuli that signal either a reward or a nonreward Discriminative Stimuli: Stimuli that precede reinforced and nonreinforced responses Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Punishment • Punisher: Any consequence that reduces the • • • frequency of a target behavior Keys: Timing, consistency, and intensity Severe Punishment: Intense punishment, capable of suppressing a response for a long period Mild Punishment: Weak punishment; usually slows responses temporarily Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Punishment Concepts • Aversive Stimulus: Stimulus that is painful or • • • uncomfortable (e.g., a shock) Escape Learning: Learning to make a response to end an aversive stimulus Avoidance Learning: Learning to make a response to avoid, postpone, or prevent discomfort (e.g., not going to a doctor or dentist) Punishment may also increase aggression Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Figure 7.22 Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Cognitive Learning • Higher-level learning involving thinking, • • • knowing, understanding, and anticipating Latent Learning: Occurs without obvious reinforcement and is not demonstrated until reinforcement is provided Rote Learning: Takes place mechanically, through repetition and memorization, or by learning a set of rules Discovery Learning: Based on insight and understanding Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Figure 7.23 Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Figure 7.24 Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Modeling or Observational Learning (Albert Bandura) • Occurs by watching and imitating actions of another person or by noting consequences of a person’s actions – Occurs before direct practice is allowed • Model: Someone who serves as an example Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Steps to Successful Modeling • Pay attention to model and remember what • • • • was done Reproduce modeled behavior If a model is successful or his/her behavior is rewarded, behavior more likely to recur Once response is tried, normal reinforcement determines whether it will be repeated Bandura created modeling theory with classic Bo-Bo Doll (inflatable clown) experiments Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Figure 7.26 Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Self-Managed Behavior • Premack Principle: Any high frequency • response used to reinforce a low frequency response (e.g., no Halo 2 or GTA until you finish your homework) Self-Recording: Self-management based on keeping records of response frequencies Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 How to Break Bad Habits • Alternate Responses: Try to get the same • • • reinforcement with a new response Extinction: Try to discover what is reinforcing an unwanted response and remove, avoid, or delay the reinforcement Response Chains: Break up the chain of events that leads to an undesired response Cues and Antecedents: Try to avoid, narrow down, or remove stimuli that elicit the bad habit Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 7 Behavioral Contracting • Behavioral Contract: Formal agreement • • • stating behaviors to be changed and consequences that apply; written contract State a specific problem behavior you wish to control or a goal you wish to achieve State the rewards you will get, privileges you will forfeit, or punishments you will get Type the contract, sign it, and get a person you trust to sign it