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Genetics – the study of heredity Based on the study of probability (likelihood) 1. Why should we study genetics? • • • • • Disease causes/treatments Biotechnology – agriculture, animal husbandry Breeding Pedigrees- family lineages Evolutionary trends 1.How are genes passed on to our offspring? 2. Sperm carry ½ and eggs ½ of genetic code. 1. How are sperm & eggs produced? 2. Meiosis – germ cells divide to produce haploid cells (1 set of chromosomes) 3. Haploid =1N 2. Meiosis has 2 divisions to reduce chromosome number 2. What are the phases of meiosis? • Meiosis I – Prophase I- Crossing over of alleles occurs! – Metaphase I- homologous chromosomes side by side – Anaphase I- ho. chrom. separate (not chromatids) – Telophase I- 2 cells with 2 chromatids of every chromos. • Meiosis II – Prophase II- nothing happens – Metaphase II- chromo align single file – Anaphase II- chromatids pull apart – Telophase II- 4 total cells w/ 1 copy of each chromo. 1N + 1N = 2N (a diploid cell) 46 XX= female 46 XY = male 23 pr homologous chromosomes What are the results of meiosis? • • • • 4 cells Genetically different Haploid (1N) In females, only one egg is used What happens if chromosomes don’t separate properly? Nondisjuction results in trisomy or monosomy Dragon genetics activity to learn basic vocabulary Check for understanding following activity: BB Bb Bb Allele/gene Genotype/phenotype Mate your dragons Punnett squares • Designed to PREDICT outcomes (expected ratios) Single gene crosses • monohybrid: Aa x Aa • Or : AA x Aa • Or Testcross: aa x A_____ Cystic fibrosis • Due to a recessive allele (ff) • Faulty membrane protein does not regulate NaCl • Cells create mucous around them/breeding ground for bacteria • Chromo #7 Huntington disease • • • • Due to a dominant allele Late onset (35 years+) Protein (huntingtin) destroys nerve cells Due to a repeat of more than 21 CAG in a gene • Chromosome 4 (discovered in 1983) • Maracaibo, Venezuela- Huntington research Di- crosses probability problems • Rh factors- effect on fetus- protein on RBC- rh from RHESUS monkey- Rh neg makes antibodies against Rh protein• Rh is important during fetal development • Albinism- due to recessive alleles Review terms • • • • • • Alleles/gene Genotype/phenotype Homozygous/heterozygous Probability Offspring/ F1/F2 generations Dominant/recessive Quiz • 1. Explain how an allele is related to a gene. • 2. What is the relationship between a genotype and a phenotype? • 3. Which of the following combinations are homozygous? BB Bb bb • 4. T-tall t – short Y –yellow y- green • Cross a plant that is heterozygous tall and homozygous for green seeds with a plant that is short and is also homozygous for green seeds. • List the genotypes and ratios for the above cross. • List the phenotypes and ratios for the above cross. Codominance • Both alleles of a gene express themselves= both proteins are produced • Examples: – AB blood type (protein “A” and protein “B”) – Sickle cell trait ( point mutation in hemoglobin)produces 3 phenotypes- normal, trait, anemia Blood type importance Your immune system makes antibodies against foreign proteins. Antibody A attacks blood type A Antibody B attacks blood type B Antibodies A & B attack blood type AB Antibodies A & B DO NOT attack blood type O blood types- multiple alleles Phenotype (protein) • Blood type A Genotype (alleles) • AA or AO • Blood type B • BB or BO • Blood type AB • AB • Blood type O • OO Blood type lab • Antibodies can cause blood to clump (agglutinate) • This is how blood is “typed” for accuracy for transfusions. What is the importance of sickle cell trait? • Evolutionary advantage to survive Malaria • “heterozygote” advantage- NS (trait) • “S” cells sickle and the protozoan is killed Video clip on sickle cell evolution http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/01/2/l_012_02.html Normal RBCs vs. Sickle RBCs phenotype • Normal blood cells genotype • NN • ½ normal & ½ can sickle • NS • all can sickle • SS Incomplete dominance • 2 alleles “blend” their traits and produce a 3rd phenotype • Examples: – Palamino horses (ncomplete & polygenic) – Tay-Sachs enzyme levels (enzymes, some enzymes, no enzyme) Some flowers X linked genes • Genes that are located on the X chromosome only • Examples – Hemophilia – Red-green color blindness – Duschene muscular dystrophy – Calico cats – ALD (Lorenzo’s oil disease) hemophilia • Hemophiliacs lack protein factors for clotting. Pedigrees Red – green color blindness Muscular dystrophy Image of Calico cat- x linked & epistatic genes Epistatic genes • Genes that “cancel” out other genes Pedigrees • Family trees that show inheritance Environmental effects on genes Polygenic inheritance • More than one gene codes for a trait Examples” skin color, eye color, height, hair color Genes are “additive” Chromosomal changes Turner’s Syndrome Occurs in females. Missing an entire X chromosome. Non-working ovaries (no menstrual cycle) Short stature and webbed neck Increased risk of heart and cardiovascular problems Triple X Syndrome • Three X chromosomes • Only one X chromosome is active at a time (little adverse effects) • Tall stature, small head, fold in skin • Learning disabilities. Low self esteem • Fertile Poly X Syndrome • • • • • • XXXX and XXXXX Similar symptoms to XXX Small head and jaw Very tall stature Irregular shaped heart and lungs Very low IQ 10-15 Klinefelter Syndrome • XXY • Common 1:500 male births • Decreased testosterone levels – More female characteristics Decreased fertility Slow development as infants and during puberty XYY Syndrome • Increased testosterone production – Rapid growth – Large muscle mass (without exercise) – Increased aggression ( still up for debate) – Normal IQ’s and fertile. XXYY Syndrome • Similar symptoms to Turners Syndrome but in males • Mentally Chellenged XXXY, XXXXY, XXXXXY • Very rare cases, caused by mutations in the formation of gametes. • Similar symptoms to Turners Syndrome (extra X). • Retardation • Short life span • Sterility • Can only be diagnosed with Karyotyping (what is that?) timeline • Genetics introduction to Mendel & vocabulary via dragon genetics • Single gene Punnetts • Multiple gene Punnetts • Codominance • Incomplete dominance