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CHAPTER 5 THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF MACROMOLECULES A. Most macromolecules are _________ • The four major classes of macromolecules are: __________________________________________ ________________________ • Three of the four classes of macromolecules form chainlike molecules called __________. • Polymers consist of many similar or identical building blocks linked by covalent bonds. • The repeated units are small molecules called ____________. • The chemical mechanisms that cells use to make and break polymers are similar for __________ of macromolecules. • The __________________ connects monomers. • ____________disconnects polymers Fig. 5.2a B. Carbohydrates - Fuel and Building Material • ______________ include both sugars and polymers. • The simplest carbohydrates are ________________ • ______________ are consist of two monosaccharides joined by a ____________ reaction. • _________________ are polymers of monosaccharides. B1. Sugars, the smallest carbohydrates serve as a source of fuel and carbon sources B.Carbohydrates • __________________: • Molecular formulas are some multiple of CH2O. • Usually names for sugars end in ____ ________________ • Have a carbonyl group and multiple________ groups. • Are a major fuel for cellular work (particularly glucose) • function as the raw material for the synthesis of other monomers, including those of _____________ and _______________ B.Carbohydrates • Two monosaccharides can join with a __________ __________ to form a______________ via ________________. • Sucrose, table sugar, is formed by joining ________and ________ and is the major transport form of sugars in plants. Fig 5.5b B.Carbohydrates B2. Polysaccharides have _________ and ___________ roles • Polysaccharides • Polymers of hundreds to thousands of monosaccharides joined by _____________linkages. • An energy storage_____________ that is hydrolyzed as needed. • Examples of polysaccharides for fuel storage from glucose • ___________ (animals only) • ___________ (plants only) • ___________- (plants only) B.Carbohydrates • One key difference among polysaccharides develops from 2 possible ______ structures of glucose. ______ - alpha glucose monomers. Only linkage is different _________ (plant cell wall)beta glucose monomers Fig. 5.7b Fig. 5.7c B.Carbohydrates • Polysaccharide strands form ________________ with other strands. • Groups of polymers form strong strands, ____________, that are basic building material for plants (and humans). Fig. 5.8 • Why can’t mammals digest __________?? B.Carbohydrates • Mammalian enzymes cannot _________ the beta linkages in _________. How can cows digest cellulose • Cows and termites have symbiotic relationships with ____________________, allowing them access to this rich source of energy. • _________ is _______________polysaccharide, used in the exoskeletons of ________________ (including insects, spiders, and crustaceans). • Chitin is similar to cellulose, except that it contains a nitrogencontaining appendage on each glucose. C. Lipids C. ________ - Diverse Hydrophobic Molecules Lipids • the exception among macromolecules because they do not form _____________. • Little or no affinity for water. • Why-? Mostly ______________ covalent bonds. • Lipids are highly diverse in form and function. •Not strictly polymers, but assembled by ______________ reactions. C1. Fats store large amounts of energy C. Lipids • A ____contains________ and _____________. • __________ - a three carbon skeleton with a _________ group attached to each. Fig. 5.10a Fig. 5-11 ___________ – a carboxyl group attached to a long carbon skeleton, often 16 to 18 carbons long (very ______________). In a fat, _______________ an _____________, creating a ________________. C. Lipids Fig. 5.11b The Fatty Acid chains can be the same or different • If one or more carbon-carbon •If no carbon-carbon double bonds, then the molecule double bonds, then the molecule is an ____________________ is a ___________________. Fig. 5.12a Fig. 5.12b • ___________fats. C. Lipids • Most animal fats • Solid at room temperature. • Contribute to __________________ (atherosclerosis) through plaque deposits. • _______________ fats. • Plant and fish fats, known as oils, • Liquid are room temperature. • The _______ provided by the ____________ prevent the molecules from packing tightly together. C. Lipids • The major function of fats is ________________. • A gram of fat stores more than ______ as much energy as a gram of a polysaccharide. • Plants use ________ for energy storage when mobility is not a concern but use _______when dispersal and packing is important, as in seeds. • Mammals store fats as long-term energy reserves in ____________ cells. • Other functions- ___________ vital organs and ________________. C. Lipids C2. Phospholipids are major components of cell membranes • ____________ = a fat with _____ fatty acids attached to _________ plus a ____________ group at the third position. Hydrophilic head • Additional smaller groups may be attached to the __________ group. Hydrophobic tail Fig. 5-13 C. Lipids • A cell surface contains ________________ arranged as a _______ • hydrophilic heads on the outside • hydrophobic tails form the core Fig. 5.14 C. Lipids C3. Steroids include cholesterol and certain hormones • Steroids are_______ with a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused carbon _____. • Different steroids are created by varying __________ groups attached to the rings. • ____________ • component in animal cell membranes. • precursor of all other _______ (including hormones) Fig. 5.15 • high levels in the blood may contribute to ___________ disease. D. Proteins D. Proteins • Functions include structural support, storage, transport of other substances, intercellular signaling, movement, and defense against foreign substances. Humans have ________________ of different proteins, each with their own _______ and ____________. • All protein polymers are constructed from the same set of __ monomers, called _______________. • Polymers of proteins are called _____________. • A protein = one or more polypeptides folded and coiled into a specific _____________. D. Proteins D1. A polypeptide is a polymer of amino acids connected in a specific sequence • _____________ consist of four components attached to a central carbon, the ______________. 1. ______________ 4. ________ __________ 2. _______________ 3. _______________ (or side chain). Differences in _________ produce the ___ different amino acids. R D. Proteins • One group of amino acids has ________, ________ R groups. Rule of thumb- If R= only CH3 groups, then _________ Fig. 5.17a • Another group of amino acids has ______R groups, making them ____________. Rule of thumb- If R has -OH or =O groups, then _____ D. Proteins • The last group of amino acids includes those with functional groups that are__________ (ionized) at cellular pH. • Some R groups are bases, others are acids. If R has _____. then _____ Fig. 5.17c If R has ___ then ______ D. Proteins • Amino acids are joined in a __________________ • The resulting _________ bond is called a ___________. Fig. 5.18 D2. A protein’s function depends on its specific conformation D. Proteins • The order of amino acids determines the threedimensional conformation, hence the _________. • The function of a protein is an ______________________ resulting from its specific molecular order. • Three levels of structure: ___________________ ____________and ___________________ Fig. 5.19 • The_________ structure of a protein is its unique _________ of amino acids. • Sickle cell disease, abnormal hemoglobins, is due to a single __________ substitution. Normal Sickle cell D. Proteins D. Proteins • The ____________ structure -hydrogen bonds at regular intervals along the polypeptide backbone. • Typical shapes -_____ (an alpha helix) -_____ (beta pleated sheets). Not in text D. Proteins • ________ structure - determined by interactions among between ________ and the___________backbone. 1. _________ bonds 4. _____________- strong covalent bonds that form between the sulfhydryl groups (SH) of cysteine monomers, stabilize the structure. 2. ___________ interactions 3. _______ bonds Page 83 D. Proteins • ______________ structure results from the aggregation of ____________ polypeptide subunits. • ___________- fibrous protein of three polypeptides that are supercoiled like a rope. • _____________- a globular protein with ____ copies of _____kinds of polypeptides. Collagen Hemaglobin Page 83 D. Proteins Review of protein structure D. Proteins • Alterations in ______________________________, or other factors can unravel or __________ a protein. Disrupt the hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, and disulfide bridges that maintain the protein’s shape. • Some proteins can return to their functional shape after ___________________, but others cannot. Fig. 5-22 • The folding of many proteins is protected by _________________ proteins. Fig. 5.23 D. Proteins E. Nucleic Acids E. Nucleic acids store and transmit hereditary information • A gene consists of regions of DNA, a polymer of ______ ____________ • Two types of nucleic acids: _________________ (RNA) and _________________ (DNA). • DNA provides direction for its own replication. • DNA makes____ makes _____. • DNA is the basis of inheritance • One gene synthesizes one RNA Fig. 5-25 E. Nucleic Acids ______components in nucleic acids1.____ DNA –__ at the “2” carbon RNA –___ at the “2” carbon 3. ____ 2. _____________ Fig. 5.26c Fig. 5.26 a and b E. Nucleic Acids Three components in nucleic acidsTwo classes of bases 1. Base Fig. 5.26c Polynucleotides are connected by _________________________________. E. Nucleic Acids E21. Inheritance is based on replication of the DNA double helix • An RNA molecule is single _____________ chain. • DNA molecules have _____ polynucleotide strands that spiral around an imaginary axis to form a __________________. • The ______________ was first proposed as the structure of DNA in 1953 by James Watson and Francis Crick. E. Nucleic Acids • The _______________ backbones of the two polynucleotides are on the outside of the helix. • Pairs of____________ _______, one from each strand, connect the polynucleotide chains with hydrogen bonds. • Most DNA molecules have thousands to millions of base pairs. Fig. 5.27 E. Nucleic Acids • Because of their shapes, only some bases are compatible with each other. • Adenine (A) always pairs with ______________ and guanine (G) with _____________ • if we know the sequence of bases on one strand, we know the sequence on the opposite strand. • The two strands are _________________. • Each strand is copied into to make two identical __________ of the original double-stranded DNA molecule. • The copies are then distributed to the _________________ cells. E. Nucleic Acids 4. We can use DNA and proteins as tape measures of_____________ • Genes (___) and their products (_________) document the hereditary background of an organism. • Because DNA molecules are passed from parents to offspring, __________ have greater similarity than do ____________ individuals of the same species. • This argument can be extended to develop a molecular ________________ between species. E. Nucleic Acids • In theory, two species that ________ to be closelyrelated based on fossil and molecular evidence should also be more similar in DNA and protein sequences than are _____________ related species. • In fact, the sequence of amino acids in hemoglobin molecules differ by only _______________ between humans and gorilla. • More distantly related species have more differences. E. Nucleic Acids