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Statistics for Microarrays Biological background: Gene Expression and Molecular Laboratory Techniques Class web site: http://statwww.epfl.ch/davison/teaching/Microarrays/ Basic principles in physics, chemistry and biology Principles Known? Physics Chemistry Biology Matter Compound Organism Elementary Particles Elements Genes Yes Yes No Central Paradigm (RT) Protein Synthesis Transcription • Transcription is a complex process involving several steps and many proteins (enzymes) • RNA polymerase synthesizes a single strand of RNA against the DNA template strand (anti-sense strand), adding nucleotides to the 3’ end of the RNA chain • Initiation is regulated by transcription factors, including promoters, usually an initiator element and TATA box, usually lying just upstream (at the 5’ end) of the coding region • 3’ end cleaved at AAUAAA, poly-A tail added Exons and Introns • Most of the genome consists of non-coding regions • Some non-coding regions (centromeres and telomeres) may have specific chomosomal functions • Other non-coding regions have regulatory purposes • Non-coding, non-functional DNA often called junk DNA, but may have some effect on biological functions • The terms exon and intron refer to coding and non-coding DNA, respectively Intron Splicing Transcription Overview Transcription Illustration Translation • The AUG start codon is recognized by methionyl-tRNAiMet • Once the start codon has been identified, the ribosome incorporates amino acids into a polypeptide chain • RNA is decoded by tRNA (transfer RNA) molecules, which each transport specific amino acids to the growing chain • Translation ends when a stop codon (UAA, UAG, UGA) is reached Translation Illustrated From Primary Transcript to Protein Alternative Splicing (of Exons) • How is it possible that there are over 1,000,000 human antibodies when there are only about 30,000 genes? • Alternative splicing refers to the different ways the exons of a gene may be combined, producing different forms of proteins within the same gene-coding region • Alternative pre-mRNA splicing is an important mechanism for regulating gene expression in higher eukaryotes Molecular Laboratory Techniques • Hybridizing DNA • Copying DNA • Cutting DNA • Probing DNA Hybridization • Hybridization exploits a potent feature of the DNA duplex – the sequence complementarity of the two strands • Remarkably, DNA can reassemble with perfect fidelity from separated strands • Strands can be separated (denatured) by heating Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) • PCR is used to amplify (copy) specific DNA sequences in a complex mixture when the ends of the sequence are known • Source DNA is denatured into single strands • Two synthetic oligonucleotides complementary to the 3’ ends of the segment of interest are added in great excess to the denatured DNA, then the temperature is lowered • The genomic DNA remains denatured, because the complementary strands are at too low a concentration to encounter each other during the period of incubation, but the specific oligonucleotides hybridize with their complementary sequences in the genomic DNA PCR, ctd • The hybridized oligos then serve as primers for DNA synthesis, which begins upon addition of a supply of nucleotides and a temperature resistant polymerase such as Taq polymerase, from Thermus aquaticus (a bacterium that lives in hot springs) • Taq polymerase extends the primers at temperatures up to 72˚C • When synthesis is complete, the whole mixture is heated further (to 95˚C) to melt the newly formed duplexes • Repeated cycles (25—30) of synthesis (cooling) and melting (heating) quickly provide many DNA copies (BREAK) Types of Viruses A virus is a nucleic acid in a protein coat. Reverse transcriptase makes a complementary DNA copy from RNA. Reverse transcription Clone cDNA strands, complementary to the mRNA mRNA G U AA U C C U C Reverse transcriptase cDNA CATTAG GAG CA G CT ACTTAA TTG ATG GAA G AGGA G G C A T T A G C A T T A G G AGGA G RT-PCR Restriction Enzymes Cut DNA Restriction Enzymes • When a bacterium is invaded by a DNAcontaining organism (e.g. virus), it can defend itself with restriction enzymes (REs; also called restriction endonucleases) • REs recognize a specific short sequence of DNA and cut both strands • The recognition sequence is typically a palindrome – i.e. the sequence in one strand is the same as in the other, read in the other direction (e.g. GAATTC) • REs named after the bacteria in which they occur, plus sequence number (e.g. Eco RI) RE Example (Eco RI) (cut) 5’ – GAATTC – 3’ 3’ – CTTAAG – 5’ (cut) Probing DNA • One way to study a specific DNA fragment within a genome is to probe for the sequence of the fragment • A probe is a labeled (usually radioactive or fluorescent) single-stranded oligonucleotide, synthesized to be complementary to the sequence of interest – probe sequence is known • Attach single-stranded DNA to a membrane (or other solid support) and incubate with the probe so that it hybridizes • Visualize the probe (e.g. by X-ray for radioactive probes) The Southern blotting technique Sample Autoradiogragh (Gel) Types of Blots • Southern Blot – use DNA to probe DNA • Northern Blot – use DNA to probe RNA • Western Blot – use antibodies to probe Protein Measuring Gene Expression Idea: measure the amount of mRNA to see which genes are being expressed in (used by) the cell. Measuring protein would be more direct, but is currently harder. Microarrays provide a means to measure gene expression Areas Being Studied with Microarrays • Differential gene expression between two (or more) sample types • Similar gene expression across treatments • Tumor sub-class identification using gene expression profiles • Classification of malignancies into known classes • Identification of “marker” genes that characterize different tumor classes • Identification of genes associated with clinical outcomes (e.g. survival) cDNA microarray experiments mRNA levels compared in many different contexts • Different tissues, same organism (brain v. liver) • Same tissue, same organism (ttt v. ctl, tumor v. non-tumor) • Same tissue, different organisms (wt v. ko, tg, or mutant) • Time course experiments (effect of ttt, development) Web animation of a cDNA microarray experiment http://www.bio.davidson.edu/courses/genomics/chip/ chip.html Yeast genome on a chip Brief outline of steps for producing a microarray • cDNA probes attached or synthesized to solid support • Hybridize targets • Scan array cDNA microarrays cDNA clones cDNA microarrays Compare the genetic expression in two samples of cells PRINT cDNA from one gene on each spot SAMPLES cDNA labelled red/green e.g. treatment / control normal / tumor tissue HYBRIDIZE Add equal amounts of labelled cDNA samples to microarray. SCAN Laser Detector Quantification of expression For each spot on the slide we calculate Red intensity = Rfg - Rbg (fg = foreground, bg = background) and Green intensity = Gfg - Gbg and combine them in the log (base 2) ratio Log2( Red intensity / Green intensity) Gene Expression Data On p genes for n slides: p is O(10,000), n is O(10-100), but growing, Slides Genes 1 2 3 4 5 slide 1 slide 2 slide 3 slide 4 slide 5 … 0.46 -0.10 0.15 -0.45 -0.06 0.30 0.49 0.74 -1.03 1.06 0.80 0.24 0.04 -0.79 1.35 1.51 0.06 0.10 -0.56 1.09 0.90 0.46 0.20 -0.32 -1.09 ... ... ... ... ... Gene expression level of gene 5 in slide 4 = Log2( Red intensity / Green intensity) These values are conventionally displayed on a red (>0) yellow (0) green (<0) scale. Biological question Differentially expressed genes Sample class prediction etc. Experimental design Microarray experiment 16-bit TIFF files Image analysis (Rfg, Rbg), (Gfg, Gbg) Normalization R, G Estimation Testing Clustering Biological verification and interpretation Discrimination