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Weather, Climate and Climate Change: Theme Breakdown
Theme
Sub – theme
K-3
Weather and
Climate
Weather

Climate
4-6
7-9
Weather changes
 Weather is the combination
from day to day but
of the conditions in the
there are patterns over
atmosphere for any location
time (in type of rain or
and includes humidity,
snow, temperature
temperature, precipitation,
highs and lows, day
cloud cover, visibility and
length). Some changes
wind. Daily weather
we can see and some
changes can occur quickly.
are too slow to notice.
Weather patterns change
We can use tools to
slowly with the seasons.3
follow these slow
changes. Some
 Weather conditions can
weather events
vary due to local effects
however do not seem
such as tree cover, human
to follow a pattern.1
activities, pavement and the
number and age of
buildings.4
 Local weather occurs in
patterns with relatively
fast cycles. Seasonal
changes in weather
have a yearly cycle
length.7
 Climate is the characteristic
weather patterns that occur
in a region determined over
a long period of time. The
climate for a large area is
shaped by where the area
is positioned on the Earth,
the amount of land and sea
area nearby, the altitude,
landforms, and the
influence of ocean
currents.5
 Climate throughout the
world is determined by
system components
and processes:
differences in intensity
of solar energy8, heat
from the sun resulting in
the movement of air
masses and ocean
currents,9 the
greenhouse effect
caused by the
atmosphere10, variation
in land forms (including
altitude effects) and the
presence of large
masses of land and
water and the cycling of
water11 and carbon.12
10-12



Global climate is an
example of a complex
natural system. The
climate system has
properties such as
feedback and delay that
make it more complex
than its individual parts.
As with all complex
systems, it is not always
possible to accurately
predict the result of
changing once part or
process in the climate
system.16
The global climate
system is regulated by
feedback mechanisms.17
Global climate has
changed in the past,
often slowly but at times
abruptly. 18
The Sun’s
Energy

The sun warms the
land, air, and water. 2
 Heat energy from the sun is
a major determinant of
weather/climate patterns.
 The Earth’s atmosphere
produces a greenhouse
effect under normal
conditions; that is it
allows in more solar
radiation than it lets out.
Because of this
phenomenon, the Earth
has relatively stable
temperatures that
support life.13
 Ocean current and
atmospheric winds are
two mechanisms by
which solar generated
heat is dispersed
around the earth.
Seasons and
Cycles

Daily weather
changes with the
seasons.
 Each season has its own
weather characteristics.6
 Normal changes in
weather and climate
can be understood in
terms of cycles with
varying cycle length or
frequency ranging from
days to many
thousands of years. 14
Climates have
sometimes changed
abruptly in the past as a
result of changes in the
earth’s crust, such as
volcanic eruptions or
impacts of huge rocks
from space.15
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
The global carbon cycle
is an important
component of the global
climate system.19

Weather (in the short
term) and climate (in the
long term) involve the
transfer of heat energy
in and out of the
atmosphere, resulting in
winds and ocean
currents.20
Influence of
Weather and
Climate
Living Things


People and other
animals and plants do
things to be able to
live with the weather
as it changes
throughout the year.21
People can’t
change the weather
so we adapt by
building, clothing,
heating systems and
going south.
 Weather and climate
determine which plants and
animals live in a region.22
 People are dependent on
weather and climate. The
kinds of crops that can be
grown in an area are
determined by the
climate.23
 We cannot control weather
so people use many tools
and behaviours to respond
to the weather: build
greenhouses to grow crops,
clothing, migrate, shelter,
heating and cooling
systems.
Forecasting
and modeling

Knowing what the
weather will be or
knowing the weather
prediction for the
future helps us plan
our activities, our
clothes and our travel
plans. Knowing the
weather also helps us
keep safe in our
environment.
 Many tools are used to
measure and forecast the
weather.
 Weather forecasts are
helpful in planning outdoor
activities (safety issues,
travel, farm & yard work,
clothing, smog alerts)
 Normal climate cycles
are very long (hundreds
to thousands of years)
which can allow plants
and animals including
people, to adapt to the
changing conditions.

The development of
societies is related to the
climatic factors for the
region they occupy.26

Scientific investigations
reveal that at no time
has the earth’s
 Satellite and computer
technology are part of a
worldwide network that
has greatly enhanced
our ability to forecast
the weather. Despite
the technology
available, the
weather/climate system
is not fully understood
and cannot be perfectly
predicted.
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Ecosystems always
change when climate
changes.25
 Climate has a profound
impact on people
including cultural
practices, food
preferences, economic
activity, and
relationships with the
natural landscapes.24
 Global warming refers
to the increase in the
temperature of the
Human
Impact on
Climate

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Earth as a result of
human activity. Climate
change refers to a wide
range of phenomena
that result from global
warming.27
 The climate change
crisis is an energy (due
primarily to the use of
carbon based fossil
fuels) and land
use/deforestation crisis
(due to the release of
carbon previously
stored in wood). 28
 The climate change
currently underway is
the result of human
activity that started as
long as 200 years ago.
Human actions
occurring today will
cause further changes
to the global climate
system in the future.29
 The atmosphere and
the oceans have a
limited capacity to
absorb carbon
dioxide.30
 Geophysical changes
related to climate
change occurring as a
result of human activity
include: increase in
temperatures34,
increase in severe
weather events,
changes in ocean
Climate
Change
Impact
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temperature changed as
rapidly as it has in the
20th century and that this
is a result of human
activity.31

The scale of human
activity that influences
climate is determined by
the human population
level and the level of
economic activity and
consumption that people
are engaged in. The
global ecosystem is only
able to absorb a portion
of the CO2 generated by
the current population
and level of economic
activity.32

Abrupt climate change is
possible if system
thresholds are exceeded.33

Scientists use various
methods including
computer models to
forecast future climate
change and potential
ecological outcomes
associated with it.46
currents, reduction in
the size of glaciers and
the polar ice caps,
increase in ocean
temperatures35, loss of
permafrost36, sea level
changes and melting
sea ice37, and changes
in rainfall patterns.

No response or
inadequate response to
human induced climate
change will result in
devastating changes to
geophysical cycles,
ecosystems and human
socio-economic
systems.47
 Ecosystem climate
change impacts include:
decrease in
biodiversity38, erosion of
northern coastlines,
desertification, impacts
on forests and
vegetation39, impact on
the workers in our
ecosystems (such as
pollinators, seed
dispersers, and
organisms that serve as
biological control
agents)40 , loss of coral
reefs. 41

Climate change will affect
the various regions of
Canada differently.48

Climate change will affect
regions of the world to
different degrees and
have great impact on
future generations. 49
 Socio-economic climate
change impacts include:
desertification and loss
of food sources in sub
Sahara Africa42,
impacts on crops, loss
of game species in the
Artic, traditional foods
for Inuit43, spread of
disease-carrying
organisms from central
latitudes to previously
colder regions44and
reduction in generating
capacity of hydroelectric
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facilities due to
decreases in rainfall. 45
Responses to
Climate
Change
 The response to
climate change by
various groups differs.
Climate Change is
accepted by the
scientific community50,
denied by many
members of the
corporate community,
accepted and denied
by various
governments.51 A
variety of reasons
account for the denial
of climate change
despite the position of
the world’s scientific
community.52
 The human activities
that have led to
climate change are
also responsible for
other serious
problems including:
smog, acid rain,
depletion of the ozone
layer as well as over
dependence on fossil
fuels and a lack of
energy independence.
Addressing the
causes of climate
change will also help
reduce the severity of
these problems as
well.53
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
The scientific community
has predicted human
induced climate change
since 1827 based on
their understanding of
global climatic processes.
Today the entire scientific
community with expertise
in climate science
accepts that human
induced climate change
is a severe challenge that
must be addressed.55

The climate change
problem is an example of
the “tragedy of the
commons”. Each
individual who
contributes to the
problem through life
actions that result in
increased carbon dioxide
levels benefits personally
from those actions
(consuming more, using
carbon based fuels,
traveling), however the
negative results to the
climate system are borne
by everyone. Solutions
to “tragedy of the
commons” problems are
social challenges that
have a history of not
being addressed
successfully.56



 Many individuals,
groups, businesses
and governments have
taken action to address
the climate change
challenge to
humanity.54
Addressing
Climate
Change
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

People respond to
climate change in
different ways. The
world’s scientific
community
acknowledges that
human activity is causing
abnormal climate change
and call for significant
change to address this.
57- Other sectors of
society do not accept the
evidence of the science
community for a number
of reasons or do not
accept the changes that
are proposed for a
number of reasons. This
is a major dilemma.
The position on climate
change of the
mainstream media is
significantly different than
that held by the science
community. This
influences the views
people have on climate
change.58
Various groups use a
variety of means to
prevent action on climate
change for a variety of
reasons. 59
Actions that can reduce
the human contribution to
climate change can occur
from the individual to the
international level.60
Carbon taxes are
proposed as a means of


1
building in the cost of
carbon dioxide pollution
in the price of carbon
based fuels (natural gas,
coal, oil) to engage
market forces to assist in
moving away form
carbon based fuels.
Opinions vary on how
carbon taxes would affect
economic activity.61
Emission trading systems
offer a means of reducing
the use of carbon based
fuels for the lowest cost
and rewarding those who
achieve carbon dioxide
reductions. 62
At this point some level of
climate change cannot be
avoided and so people
must also consider how
we can prepare for it.63
AAAS, 1993: 67, 162, 272
AAAS, 1993: 83.
3 Students are to distinguish between weather and climate and know, among other things, how climate influences commerce, choice of habitat and
trade. Henriques, 2000.
Weather and climate phenomena occur in steady, repetitive, or irregular ways-or sometimes in more than one way at the same time. The type of
change that is occurring can be determined by recording observations/measurements in a table or graph. AAAS, 1993: 273.
4Plants can change the local conditions and affect the influence of changes due to pollution, car exhaust etc.
5Examples of landforms that affect the weather of an area are flatlands and mountains.
6 AAAS, 1993:67 .
7 AAAS, 1993: 274.
8 Because the Earth turns daily on an axis that is tilted, sunlight falls more intensely on different parts of the Earth during the year. The difference
in heating of the Earth’s surface produces seasons and weather patterns. AAAS, 1993: 69.
9 Heat energy carried by ocean currents has a strong influence on climate around the world. AAAS, 1993: 69.
10 The heat that originates from the sun emits different kinds of radiation. Certain atmospheric gases trap solar radiation after it has reached the
Earth and warm it up, while some escapes back to space but some stays within the atmosphere. Koulaidis and Christidou, 1999: 569. To
2
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understand the greenhouse effect thoroughly the following scientific concepts must be understood: radiation, wavelength, the conservation of
energy and steady state. Andersson and Wallin, 2000.
Global warming by the greenhouse effect is determined by the inability of the atmosphere to transmit certain wavelengths of the electromagnetic
spectrum. Sunlight contains a range of wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation. When radiation is transmitted, the Earth’s surface heats up and
begins to radiate its own electromagnetic waves. But because the Earth is cooler than the sun, the wavelengths are different and thus many
cannot escape through the atmosphere. Therefore, the Earth heats up further and is warmer than it would be without the greenhouse effect. This
warming enables life to exist on this planet and is essential to life. However, this effect has been intensified in recent decades due to an increase
in greenhouse gas particles that trap the waves therefore producing the enhanced or human induced greenhouse effect. Boyes, Chuckran and
Stanisstreet, 1993: 542. The name, greenhouse effect is unfortunate, for a real greenhouse does not behave as the atmosphere does. The
primary mechanism keeping the air warm in a real greenhouse is the suppression of convection (the exchange of air between the inside and
outside). Thus, a real greenhouse does act like a blanket to prevent bubbles of warm air from being carried away from the surface. As we have
seen, this is not how the atmosphere keeps the Earth's surface warm. Indeed, the atmosphere facilitates rather than suppresses convection.
Fraser, 2006. As it was discussed above, teaching material about sunlight, radiation, or environmental issues (such as ozone depletion and/or the
greenhouse effect) should introduce ultraviolet radiation as a form of sunlight with special properties. Crucial ideas that might facilitate the
conceptual distinction between UV and other forms of sunlight and could thus be used as facilitating conditions in teaching the greenhouse effect
include,1. The conceptualization of the “sunlight” as a spectrum comprising different bands of radiation of different “character.” 2. The notion that
different atmospheric gases absorb electromagnetic radiation at different wavelengths. Koulaidis and Christidou, 1999: 570. Teaching the
properties of sunlight wavelengths in more detail could help with students’ misconceptions around the relationship of Ozone Depletion, the
necessary greenhouse effect and the harming enhanced greenhouse effect.
11The cycling of water in and out of the atmosphere plays an important role in determining climatic patterns. Water evaporates form the surface of
the Earth, rises and cools, condenses into rain or snow and falls again to the surface and flows back to the ocean. AAAS, 1993: 69
12 The essential issue here is that carbon dioxide is an atmospheric component that contributes to the phenomenon of the greenhouse or
atmosphere effect and that this carbon dioxide comes and goes as part of other processes on the planet’s surface. Anderson, Mohan and
Sharma, 2005.
13
14
AAAS, 1993: 174.
These examples of abrupt changes in atmospheric or ocean content are relatively small however they can have widespread effects on climate if
the change lasts long enough. AAAS, 1993: 69.
16 The global climate weather system can best be understood through systems analysis. It has boundaries and subsystems, relationships to other
systems, and inputs and outputs. AAAS, 1993: 266.
17AAAS, 1993: 266. Positive feedbacks are mechanisms that amplify an effect and negative feedbacks can moderate an effect. Examples of
some Feedback Mechanisms involved in Climate Change are: Positive feedback: A warmer atmosphere is expected to contain more water
vapour, which is a greenhouse gas, thereby reinforcing the warming. Forest dieback and reduced growth due to stress caused by climate change
such as increased temperatures, results in less CO2 being taken from atmosphere. A possible negative feedback would be that due to higher
concentrations of CO2 in the atmosphere would results in an increased growth in some plants. The IPCC future climate change models predict that
the net effect of land and ocean climate feedbacks as indicated is to further increase projected atmospheric CO2 concentrations, by reducing both
the ocean and land uptake of CO2. AAAS, 1993: 275. IPCC, 2001: 46-49.
18 “Variability is a natural feature of the climate system. It may appear as short-term fluctuations that come and go within the span of a decade or
longer-term changes that last for a century or more. Such variations are the net result of a number of factors. One of these is simply the random
variability that occurs within a complex, quasi-chaotic system such as the climate system because of the almost infinite number of forces acting on
15
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it. Still, there are clear theoretical limits to this variability, and these are set by large-scale controls and feedback processes that govern the amount
of energy entering and leaving the atmosphere. These include such factors as the intensity of the sun’s radiation, the Earth’s orbit and the tilt of its
axis, and the concentration of greenhouse gases in the Earth’s atmosphere.” Francis and Hengeveld, 1998: 9. Some short-term fluctuations are
the result of systematic variations within the climate system. For example, the severity of winters in Western Europe tends to follow the patterns of
the North Atlantic Oscillation which is an alternation in pressure differences between Iceland and the Azores. Francis and Hengeveld, 1998: 34.
The most commonly discussed short term climative fluctuations in the climate have occurred because of Sun spots and volcanic eruptions. Sun
spots are minor changes in the intensity of the suns radiation. The number of sunspots on the sun’s surface increases and then decreases over a
cycle that varies from 7.5 to 16 years and averages slightly more than 11 years. Francis and Hengeveld, 1998: 11. Large volcanic eruptions can
put forth a powerful cooling effect on weather in many parts of the world. This occurs because of the sulphur particles blown into the stratosphere
can partially block incoming sunlight for a number of years. Francis and Hengeveld, 1998: 10. Other variations can be caused by the interactions
between the oceans and atmosphere such as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon. This is an example of natural “internal”
variability on interannual time-scales. “To distinguish anthropogenic climate changes from natural variations, it is necessary to identify the
anthropogenic “signal” against the background “noise” of natural climate variability.” IPCC, 2001: 25. Lastly, longer variations in the climate have
occurred relatively recently and have affected people significantly during that time. The Little Ice Age happened from 100 to 500 years ago.
Vikings had settled on Greenland during the wet Medieval Warm Period but were driven out by the cold Little Ice Age, Alley 2000. “The impact of
this sudden change of climate was dramatic and global. Glaciers advanced rapidly in Greenland, Iceland, Scandinavia, and the Alps. The Arctic
pack ice extended so far south that there are six records of Eskimos landing their kayaks in Scotland. Large tracts of land, particularly at higher
latitudes and altitudes, had to be abandoned. In many years, snowfall was much heavier than recorded before or since, and the snow lay on the
ground for many months longer than it does today. Many springs and summers were outstandingly cold and wet, although there was great
variability between years and groups of years. Crop practices throughout Europe had to be altered to adapt to the shortened, less reliable growing
season, and there were many years of death and famine. Violent storms caused massive flooding and loss of life. Some of these resulted in
permanent losses of large tracts of land from the Danish, German, and Dutch coasts. The dramatic cooling was captured in the paintings of the
Flemish artist Pieter Bruegel (1525–1569), who initiated a new genre by completing at least seven winter landscapes in 2 years.” Reiter, 2000.
19Anderson, Mohan and Sharma discuss the important of Carbon Cycling in the article, 2005. They point out why the Carbon-transforming
processes are uniquely important. All living things are made of carbon compounds and throughout their life transform carbon by growing and
storing food. They also obtain and use energy by oxidizing carbon compounds. Specifically in humans, the product of our activity, Carbon Dioxide
plays several vital roles in the global climate system. It regulates global temperatures, atmospheric circulation and precipitation. For these reasons
the understanding of the above process is central to understanding many environmental processes and systems in general. They also note the
importance in relation to citizen’s participation in environmental decision-making. Environmental issues such as Global climate change, prices and
uses of fossil fuels and alternative energy sources, deforestation, soil fertility, hypoxic conditions in lakes and oceans all require an understanding
of carbon-transforming processes. Lastly, carbon-transforming processes and systems relating to them exemplify big ideas in the science
curriculum. This topic allows opportunities to learn key ideas and ways of reasoning from different disciplines throughout the curriculum while
gaining mental skills that will be used daily in their students’ lives. AAAS, 1993: 74. The origin of fossil fuels is as follows. At times, environmental
conditions are such that plants and marine organisms grow faster than decomposers can recycle them back to the environment. Layers of energyrich organic material have been gradually turned into great coal beds and oil pools by the pressure of the overlying Earth. By burning these fossil
fuels, people are passing most of the stored energy back into the environment as heat and releasing large amounts of carbon dioxide. AAAS,
1993: 74. As is was noted above, in one part of the cycle, plants remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere during the process of
photosynthesis, using the carbon to make sugars and releasing the oxygen. This process significantly affects the gaseous mix of the air and is
therefore an exceptionally important component of the global climate system.
20 Solar radiation heats the land masses, oceans, and air. Transfer of heat energy at the boundaries between the atmosphere, the land masses,
and the oceans results in layers of different temperatures and densities in both the ocean and atmosphere. The action of gravitational force on
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regions of different densities causes them to rise or fall – and such circulation, influenced by the rotation of the Earth, produces winds and ocean
currents.” AAAS, 1993: 70.
21 For example, some animals hibernate. During the winter, the temperature is cold, and food is scarce, so animals take a long nap. Since they
can’t eat during hibernation, animals (like the black bear) get energy from stored body fat. To prepare for this long time without food, a black bear
will eat a lot during the fall, gaining about 30 pounds each week. This weight has to last for up to 100 days of hibernating. See Bryner, 2005: 43.
People grow food, go on holiday and play different sports during different times of the year and trees loose their leaves in the fall and most plants
grow in the spring and summer.
22For any particular environment, some kinds of plants and animals survive well, some survive less well, and some cannot survive at all. AAAS,
1993: 116. Climate affects the day to day activities and health of every living thing on Earth, especially humans.
23 We plan on similar weather changes throughout the year. We are dependent on stable climate and weather. AAAS, 1993: 184.
24 The climate of a region affects the agriculture that can develop. Agriculture dominates the economies of most developing countries and is a
significant factor in the development of any nation or society. In developing countries 70% of the population is directly dependent on agriculture
for its livelihood. Also, Indigenous cultures are closely linked to the land and are intimately linked to the climate, flora fauna and landscape of their
region. Natural disasters such as storms, hurricanes, tornadoes, and floods are normally relatively uncommon but when they occur they are major
factors in causing social and cultural change, AAAS, 1993: 163. Climate also affects heating and cooling requirements, determines clothing and
nutritional needs and limits recreational activities. Research around weather and climate show that it influences societal (e.g. civilization, culture
and migration), psychological (e.g. aggression, cognition and mental illness), physiological (e.g. allergies, diet and nutrition) and economic
conditions (e.g. energy production, manufacturing or labour demand). Rehdanz and Maddison, 2003. In addition to the changes mentioned above
research findings around individuals happiness concludes that differential patterns of global warming along with a changed distribution of rainfall
promises to alter dramatically the distribution of happiness between nations with some countries moving towards a preferred climate and others
moving further away. The research found that a higher mean temperatures in the coldest month increase happiness, whereas higher mean
temperatures in the hottest month decrease happiness. Rehdanz and Maddison, 2003.
25 AAAS, 1993: 117. Ecosystem changes that result from a change in the climate include an increase or reduction in the plant and animal species
in a region, a change in the number of individuals in each population, ecosystem relationships between species. Species that have adapted to
specific species are susceptible to extinction if these conditions are no longer available.
26 Historically large changes in the climate effected people’s settlements and activities. The Medieval Warm Period opened Iceland, Greenland,
and North America to the Vikings, and the Little Ice Age cooling that helped drive the Vikings from Greenland, caused glaciers to advance across
farms in Norway and allowed Hans Brinker to skate on the canals of Holland. Alley, 2000. Modern regions will be affected because of the reliance
on climate dependent economic industries. For example, the Mediterranean is likely to become less attractive for European visitors for health
reasons in the summer when temperatures increase. Research indicates around seasonal favourability of individuals suggested that a climate
warming of 4 degrees C would lead to a shift in the optimal summertime climate from the traditional southern coastal resorts northwards to
currently less fashionable regions. This result holds true regardless of whether the warming is associated with moderate decreases or increases of
precipitation. Perry, 2004.
27The 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) defines “climate change” as “a change of climate which is
attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere. . . ” United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change, The. 2006. In contrast, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines climate change more broadly and
includes reference to land use change: “climate change refers to a statistically significant variation in either the mean state of the climate or in its
variability. Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external forcings, or to persistent anthropogenic changes in the
composition of the atmosphere or in land use” IPCC, 2001. See Marland et al 2003: 150. "Global warming" refers to the rise in the Earth's
temperature resulting from an increase in heat-trapping gases in the atmosphere. Union of Concerned Scientists
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http://www.ucsusa.org/global_warming/science/global-warming-faq.html#1 – viewed September 1 2006. For a discussion on differences between
the two phenomenons see Pollution Probe, 2004: 6.
28 AAAS, 1993: 69. The main contributor to climate change is fossil fuel use which releases carbon that has been stored underground for millions
of years into the atmosphere at a relatively rapid rate, beyond the capacity of the climate system to absorb it. Therefore climate change occurs.
The increase of Carbon Dioxide has happened because the rate at which CO2 is being emitted from the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation
(among other sources) exceeds the rate at which it is absorbed and stored on land and in oceans. Coward and Weaver, 2004. The alteration of
the land cover and changes in the way land is used affect the biogeochemical cycles of the Earth, the level of atmospheric greenhouse gases, and
other land surface characteristics. Coward and Weaver, 2004: 92. 61% of the anthropogenic greenhouse forcing can be attributed to CO2
increases. During the past century (1850-1980), fossil fuels accounted for the release of 150-190PG of carbon, and land-use change accounted
for the release of 90-120 PgC. With land use changes making the greater contribution prior to about 1910. At a landscape scale, changes in landcover patterns can directly impact energy and mass fluxes. For example, when large areas of forests are cleared, reduced transpiration results in
less cloud formation, less rainfall, and increased drying. Simulations of the deforestation of Amazonia indicate that evapotranspiration and forests
would be replaced by either desert or pasture. Dale, 1997. With changes in land use and land cover all of the elements of climate change come
into play. Changes in land surface can result in emission or removal of CO2 to the atmosphere and thus to changes in the Earth’s radiation
balance. Changes in land surface can also change the radiation balance by altering the Earth’s surface albedo. In addition, changes in land
surface can alter the fluxes of sensible and latent heat to the atmosphere and thus the distribution of energy within the climate system; and in so
doing can alter climate at the local, regional, and even global scale. Marland et al 2003: 151.
29 Human activities can, deliberately or inadvertently, alter the equilibrium in ecosystems. AAAS, 1993: 117.Human activities that have contributed
to climate change include: releasing chemicals into the air in amounts beyond those that can be accommodated, reducing the amount of forest
cover and intensive farming. AAAS, 1993: 73. Research indicates 61% of the anthropogenic greenhouse forcing can be attributed to CO2
increases. During the past century (1850-1980), fossil fuels accounted for the release of 150-190PG of carbon, and land-use change accounted
for the release of 90-120 PgC. With land use changes making the greater contribution prior to about 1910. Marland et al 2003: 151.
30See Syukuro and Stouffer, 1993.
31 Godrej, 2001: 15. The climate changes that have occurred over the past 100 years are a result of human activity since the beginning of the
industrial revolution and the large scale use of fossil fuels. There are fail-safe ways to establish that the increase of Carbon Dioxide is because of
human activity. The nuclei of carbon atoms in the gas in emissions from natural and human processes are different. Naturally released carbon
dioxides carbon atoms have a measurable levels of radioactivity but the nuclei of carbon from fossil fuel sources has less radioactivity because of
being stored in the Earth for millions of years. Godrej, 2001: 15.
32 Estimates suggest that terrestrial vegetation and soils take up only about 40% of global CO emissions from human activities. Coward and
2
Weaver, 2004: 92.
33Mike Hulme explores the definition of abrupt climate change in his article, Abrupt Climate Change; can society cope? 2003. One description is,
“technically, an abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to cross some threshold, triggering a transition to a new state at a
rate determined by the climate system itself and faster than the cause. The cause may be chaotic and thus undetectably small.” More generally he
states that, abrupt climate change depends on the rate, severity and direction of changes occurring in the global climate system. The conclusions
of the IPCC studies of what changes have and are occurring are considered as benchmarks of the present rate, severity and direction of the
climate changes. When these reach a certain point, the Climate Change will be considered abrupt. The possibility for rapid and irreversible
changes in the climate system exists, but there is a large degree of uncertainty about the mechanisms involved and hence also about the
likelihood or time-scales of such transitions. The climate system involves many processes and feedbacks that interact in complex nonlinear ways.
This interaction can give rise to thresholds in the climate system that can be crossed if the system is perturbed sufficiently. There is evidence from
polar ice cores suggesting that atmospheric regimes can change within a few years and that large-scale hemispheric change can evolve as fast as
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a few decades. For example, the possibility of a threshold for a rapid transition of the Atlantic THC to a collapsed state has been demonstrated
with a hierarchy of models. It is not yet clear what this threshold is and how likely it is that human activity would lead it to being exceeded.
Atmospheric circulation can be characterised by different preferred patterns; e.g., arising from ENSO and the NAO/AO, and changes in their
phase can occur rapidly. Basic theory and models suggest that climate change may be first expressed in changes in the frequency of occurrence
of these patterns. Changes in vegetation, through either direct anthropogenic deforestation or those caused by global warming, could occur rapidly
and could induce further climate change. It is supposed that the rapid creation of the Sahara about 5,500 years ago represents an example of
such a non-linear change in land cover.” IPCC, 2001: 53.
34 U.S. temperatures increased by approximately 0.6°C (1°F) over the past century, while precipitation increased by 5-10 percent. The magnitude
of warming, however, has varied among different regions within the United States. Alaska, for example, has experienced an average temperature
increase of 2-4°C (4-7°F) in just the past 50 years. Galbraith and Parmesan, 2004: 6. Many parts of the world have shown a decrease in the
occurrence of low temperature extremes, as would be expected in a warming climate. Surprisingly, though, there has not yet been a noticeable
increase in high temperature extremes. The reason appears to be related to the tendency in many regions for winter temperatures to have
increased more than summer temperatures and for overnight lows to have warmed more than daytime highs. Drought, on the other hand, has
become more common since the 1970s in parts of Africa as well as along the coasts of Chile and Peru and in northeastern Australia. The North
American prairies also saw an increase in drought during the 1980s, although these years were not as dry as either the 1930s or the 1950s.
Francis and Hengeveld, 1998: 4 & 5.
35 Sea temperatures in the tropics have increased by almost 1oC over the past 100 years and are currently increasing at the rate of approximately
1-2oC per century. Walther et al, 2002. Hoegh-Guldberg, 1999.
36 The elements of climate change include global average surface temperature; global average sea level; the frequency, intensity, and location of
extreme events; the length of the regional growing season; soil moisture; above- and below-ground biomass; local precipitation, etc. Climate
change is occurring at all spatial scales from local to regional to global. Human society is currently helping to produce a global climate for which
there is no precedent in the historic or prehistoric records. Marland et al 2003: 151.
37The most recent scientific evidence strongly suggests that the Arctic is experiencing warming at a rate greater than almost any other region of
the globe. This is evidenced by the thickness of the ice cover; the occurrence of both the melting and freezing of the Arctic Ocean and its
surrounding waterways; and from the samples of ice cores. Observations made by northern Aboriginal peoples also lend credence to the evidence
that the Arctic is warming up. Insects have been reported much further north than is the norm. Changes in animal migration patterns have also
been reported. Both northern Aboriginal peoples and scientists have reported significant changes in the hunting patterns of predators such as the
polar bear. For example, Ian Sterling, one of the world’s leading experts on the North American polar bear has noted that the polar bear population
inhabiting the Hudson Bay region has become smaller. He attributes this to the earlier melting of the ice cover on Hudson Bay, which has made it
more difficult for the bears to hunt seal. The Canadian Ice Services of Environment Canada has noted that the ice cover has decreased since the
mid-1970s. Satellite data show that the ice cover has steadily been decreasing. Huebert, 2001: 87.
38 The evidence indicates that only 30 years of warmer temperatures at the end of the twentieth century have affected the phenology of organisms,
the range and distribution of species, and the composition and dynamics of communities. These examples, spanning the previous century and
encompassing most major taxa and ecosystems on Earth, provide linkages between recently observed changes in natural systems and twentieth
century climate change. Walther et al, 2002: 394. A climate “fingerprint” is discernible in natural systems. The most rigorous studies within the
United States provide strong evidence that climate change has affected the timing of biological events in at least three taxa (i.e., groups of related
species). They also provide strong evidence that at least three taxa have shifted their ranges in response to climate change and that climate
change has altered ecological communities and processes. Further, very few instances of biotic change run completely counter to climate-change
predictions, and the findings of many of the U.S. studies are mirrored by studies elsewhere around the world. Galbraith and Parmesan, 2004.
Common changes in the timing of spring activities include earlier breeding or first singing of birds, earlier arrival of migrant birds, earlier
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appearance of butteries, earlier choruses and spawning in amphibians and earlier shooting and flowering of plants. In general, spring activities
have occurred progressively earlier since the 1960s. Walther et al, 2002.
39 The Alaskan tundra has switched from being a net sink of CO2 (absorbing and storing more carbon from the atmosphere than is released) to
being a net source of CO2 (releasing more carbon than is stored), because warmer winters have allowed dead plant matter previously stored in
the soil to decompose and release CO2. Like the tundra, boreal forests have become carbon sources because of reduced growth due to climatemediated increases in water stress, pest outbreaks, and wildfires. Conversely, many of the forests of the lower 48 states have switched in the
opposite direction—becoming carbon sinks in recent decades. This transition is attributed to regrowth of forests following logging and
abandonment of agricultural fields. However, it is expected to stop as soon as the forests mature. Galbraith and Parmesan, 2004: iv. In Antarctic
terrestrial ecosystems, visually dramatic examples of biological changes in response to climatic warming include the colonization by macroscopic
plants (largely mosses) of previously bare or newly exposed ground and the rapid expansion in extent and numbers of the only two higher plants
present on the continent. Walther et al, 2002: 392.
40 With general warming trends, these `climate envelopes' become shifted towards the poles or higher altitudes. To the extent that dispersal and
resource availability allow, species are expected to track the shifting climate and likewise shift their distributions poleward in latitude and upward in
elevation. Walther et al, 2002: 392.
41 Poised near their upper thermal limits, coral reefs have undergone global mass bleaching events whenever sea temperatures have exceeded
long-term summer averages by more than 1.0 8C for several weeks. Reef-building corals, which are central to healthy coral reefs, are currently
living close to their thermal maxima. They become stressed if exposed to small slight increases (1-2oC) in water temperature and experience coral
bleaching. Coral bleaching occurs when the photosynthetic symbionts of corals (zooxanthellae) become increasing vulnerable to damage by light.
Six periods of mass coral bleaching have occurred since 1979 and the incidence of mass coral bleaching is increasing in both frequency and
intensity. The most severe period occurred in 1998, in which an estimated 16% of the world's reef-building corals died. See Walther et al, 2002:
392 and Hoegh-Guldberg, 1999 for more detailed descriptions.
42 Food security presents a particularly worrisome problem, given the continuing growth of the world’s population and the leveling off in production
of key foodstuffs such as wheat and rice. Increased crop damage from droughts, floods, and storms could make famines not only more frequent
but far more difficult to deal with. See Francis and Hengeveld, 1998: 26.
43 The Inuvialuit Community in Sachs Harbour, reported commonplace and cumulative changes that threaten their cultural future: melting
permafrost resulting in beach slumping; increased snowfalls; longer sea ice-free seasons; new species of birds and fish (barn owls, mallard and
pin-tailed ducks and salmon) near the community; a decline in the lemming population, the basic food for Arctic fox, a valuable harvested species;
and generally a warming trend. See Fenge, 2001: 82.
44Climate-linked invasions might also involve the immigration of unwanted neighbours such as epidemic diseases. There is much evidence that a
steady rise in annual temperatures has been associated with expanding mosquito-borne diseases in the highlands of Asia, East Africa and Latin
America. Overall, trends of range changes show remarkable internal consistency between studies relating to glaciers, plant and insect ranges and
shifting isotherms. See Walther et al, 2002 and Pollution Probe, 2004.
45 See Harrison and Whittington, 1998.
46 Each model must use estimates of the amount of CO emissions from humans. Policies and agreements, such as the Kyoto Agreement, are
2
established so humans will reach the lower estimates of CO 2 emissions and therefore experience less Climate Change.The models being used to
predict future warming still contain too much uncertainty. Although they have improved and continue to evolve, the global climate system is very
complex, making it difficult to accurately account for every factor. Greenlearning.ca, 2006.
47 Changes that are already being observed are to the rising sea levels, changes in the water cycle (precipitation increasing or decreasing in
areas, ocean temperatures etc) and air temperatures (increasing and decreasing in certain areas effecting other systems such as the water cycle
and oceans). Vulnerable areas to water level changes are low-lying nations and islands states, coastlines and deltas, regions already vulnerable
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to drought and desertification, fragile mountain ecosystems. Greenlearning.ca, 2006. Presently, the human species have major impacts on other
species such as: reducing the amount of the Earth’s surface available to those other species, interfering with their food sources, changing the
temperature and chemical composition of their habitats. These impacts are and will be increased due to human induced climate changes, AAAS,
1993: 57. Based on our current understanding of climate change science, future climate change impacts will result in: ice cap and glacier
reduction, species movements and desertification. Examples of changes occurring in socio-economic systems will include: spread of disease,
dealing with extreme hot and cold weather conditions, availability and quality of water, Subsistence Hunting, Hydroelectricity, Agriculture, Forestry,
Fisheries, human Health, Infrastructure & Tourism and Recreation. Greenlearning.ca, 2006. The indirect effects of climate change will alter the
environment and ecosystems in which we live. These indirect effects will occur through insect- and rodent-transmitted diseases (e.g., West Nile
virus fever; Lyme disease and Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome); increased smog and air pollution; waterborne and food-related illnesses (e.g.,
giardia, E. coli infection, and shellfish poisoning); and stronger UV radiation, which is a leading cause of skin cancer and. Climate change models
that don’t take into account any decreases in Greenhouse Gas emissions (the ‘business as usual’ scenario) estimate 3 billion people will see an
increase in ‘water stress’. Specifically those in Northern Africa, Middle East and the Indian subcontinent. Godrej, 2001: 57. Pollution Probe, 2004:
14.
48 Canada being in the Northern Latitudes is expected to experience change greater than global averages, the IPCC estimates. Due to the size of
Canada and its location on the globe it will experience Climate Change in very specific ways in specific regions and to varying degrees. Arctic and
Subarctic Canada will experience the greatest temperature and precipitation changes. Coward and Weaver, 2004: 73-74. Examples of specific
changes in specific regions are; In the North the depletion of Sea Ice will affect dependent animals such as Polar Bears and Seals as well as
Indigenous hunters who rely heavily on these animals. Also, transportation with regard to ice roads in the winter and shipping in channels will be
affected by changing water levels. These activities will affect Canadians economically and socially as well as effecting the environment. The
eastern Arctic will experience more severe winter storms and human adaptation must be significant with regards to rapid changes in Northern
economies and institutions. The Southern Prairie Provinces will be most affected by water changes due to climate change and therefore
agriculture seriously affected. Crops are also affected by higher temperatures, as are pests that are an important factor in farming. Southern
Ontario and Southwest Quebec having the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence systems will be affected by changing water levels due to higher
evaporation in warmer temperatures. Water management, flash flood potential will also increase in these areas Coward and Weaver, 2004: 75-84.
49 Climate change will impact upon people disproportionately. The actions or inaction of present generations will affect future generations. Many
industrialized countries will not suffer the consequences of climate change at the same level as those from less developed nations. People in
industrialized countries generate over 62 times more CO2 pollution per person than in the least industrialized countries. Godrej, 2001: 32. Social
tradeoffs are often generational. The cost of benefits received by one generation may fall on subsequent generations. Also, the cost of a social
trade-off is sometimes borne by one generation although the benefits are enjoyed by their descendants. AAAS, 1993: 166. Industrialised and
developing countries experience the impacts of Climate Change in very disproportionate ways. For example, 96% of all deaths from natural or
unnatural disasters happen in the developing world. The spreading of disease is the primary force behind these deaths because of the
substantially fewer resources, supports and infrastructure compared to industrialized countries. Godrej, 2001: 48.
50 The Earth’s climate system has demonstrably changed on both global and regional scales since the pre-industrial era, with some of these
changes attributable to human activities. Human activities have increased the atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases and aerosols
since the pre-industrial era. The atmospheric concentrations of key anthropogenic greenhouse gases (i.e., carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4),
nitrous oxide (N2O), and tropospheric ozone (O3)) reached their highest recorded levels in the 1990s, primarily due to the combustion of fossil
fuels, agriculture, and land-use changes. The radiative forcing from anthropogenic greenhouse gases is positive with a small uncertainty range;
that from the direct aerosol effects is negative and smaller; whereas the negative forcing from the indirect effects of aerosols on clouds might be
large but is not well quantified. See IPCC, 2001.
51 The debate can be seen clearly in Toulin’s Article in the National Post titled Canada: Kyoto Possible without hurting economy: CEO’s, 2002.
Business leaders believe implementing the Kyoto Protocol on climate change can be achieved without causing major economic disruption, says a
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Financial Post poll. Some 57% of the executives said greenhouse emissions could be cut drastically with little economic impact -- the same
position expressed by David Anderson, the Minister of the Environment at this time. Meanwhile, 29% of respondents said they were firmly
opposed to the Kyoto Protocol and 13% had no opinion. Steve Kiar, a COMPAS senior partner, said the poll response is surprising because such
key business groups as the Canadian Chamber of Commerce, the Canadian Manufacturers and Exporters and the Canadian Association of
Petroleum Producers have warned that implementing the treaty would be devastating for the Canadian economy. In February (2002), the
Canadian Manufacturers and Exporters said Kyoto would wipe out 450,000 manufacturing jobs in Canada, and that it would cost the economy up
to $40-billion and force a radical lifestyle change on people. Toulin, 2002.
For a skeptics article see also Moore, 1998, Warmer Earth Might be a Welcome Trend. An excerpt supposedly from a Wall Street Journal Article
written by Pete Du Pont, the former governor of Delaware stated, “So what is the reality about global warming and its impact on the world? A new
study released this week by the National Center for Policy Analysis, "Climate Science: Climate Change and Its Impacts"” looks at a wide variety of
climate matters, from global warming and hurricanes to rain and drought, sea levels, arctic temperatures and solar radiation. It concludes that "the
science does not support claims of drastic increases in global temperatures over the 21rst century, nor does it support claims of human influence
on weather events and other secondary effects of climate change.” “The environmental pessimists tell us, as in Time magazine's recent global
warming issue, to "Be Worried. Be Very Worried," but the truth is that our environmental progress has been substantially improving, and we should
be very pleased." Du Pont, 2006.
52 Scientists are linked to other scientists worldwide both personally and through international scientific organizations. AAAS, 1993: 177.
53 See Pollution Probe, 2004.
54 The response to climate change is gathering strength despite continued resistance to climate change form various sectors of the economy.
Manitoba announced in June 2002 that the provincial government intends to meet and even exceed its targets for reducing greenhouse gas
emissions under the international Kyoto Protocol. http://www.gov.mb.ca/est/climatechange/takeaction/. Cities such as Regina have initiated
actions to inform citizens
about the challenge http://www.regina.ca/content/info_services/climate/greenribbon/committee.shtml
Many non-governmental organizations focus on the climate change issue. An example is the David Suzuki foundation http://www.davidsuzuki.org/Publications/Climate_Change_Reports/ Specific actions are promoted through the Clean Air Pass http://www.cleanairpass.com/ - Viewed September 3 2006.
Some members of the corporate community are developing responses to climate change in advance of government policy in the area.
The increase of CO2 in the atmosphere was first recognized in the late 1800’s. Scientists, Politicians and Industries have debated and met
about climate change in many historically significant speeches and conferences. Some have had a significant impact on making Climate Change
an important social problem and some have created conflict and debate, many issues are still very unresolved. The following is a timeline
including significant events in Climate Change history.
1827: French polymath Jean-Baptiste Fourier predicts an atmospheric effect keeping the Earth warmer than it would otherwise be. He is the first
to use a greenhouse analogy.
1863: Irish scientist John Tyndall publishes a paper describing how water vapour can be a greenhouse gas.
1890s: Swedish scientist Svante Arrhenius and an American, P C Chamberlain, independently consider the problems that might be caused by
CO2 building up in the atmosphere. Both scientists realise that the burning of fossil fuels could lead to global warming, but neither suspects the
process might already have begun.
1890s to 1940: Average surface air temperatures increase by about 0.25 °C. Some scientists see the American Dust Bowl as a sign of the
greenhouse effect at work.
1940 to 1970: Worldwide cooling of 0.2°C. Scientific interest in greenhouse effect wanes. Some climatologists predict a new ice age.
55
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1957: US oceanographer Roger Revelle warns that humanity is conducting a "large-scale geophysical experiment" on the planet by releasing
greenhouse gases. Colleague David Keeling sets up first continuous monitoring of CO2 levels in the atmosphere. Keeling soon finds a regular
year-on-year rise.
1979: First World Climate Conference adopts climate change as major issue and calls on governments "to foresee and prevent potential manmade changes in climate."
1985: First major international conference on the greenhouse effect at Villach, Austria, warns that greenhouse gases will "in the first half of the
next century, cause a rise of global mean temperature which is greater than any in man's history." This could cause sea levels to rise by up to one
metre, researchers say. The conference also reports that gases other than CO 2, such as methane, ozone, CFCs and nitrous oxide, also contribute
to warming.
1987: Warmest year since records began. The 1980s turn out to be the hottest decade on record, with seven of the eight warmest years recorded
up to 1990. Even the coldest years in the 1980s were warmer than the warmest years of the 1880s.
1988: Global warming attracts worldwide headlines after scientists at Congressional hearings in Washington DC blame major US drought on its
influence. Meeting of climate scientists in Toronto subsequently calls for 20% cuts in global CO 2 emissions by the year 2005. UN sets up the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to analyse and report on scientific findings.
1990: The first report of the IPCC finds that the planet has warmed by 0.5°C in the past century. IPCC warns that only strong measures to halt
rising greenhouse gas emissions will prevent serious global warming. This provides scientific clout for UN negotiations for a climate convention.
Negotiations begin after the UN General Assembly in December.
1991: Mount Pinatubo erupts in the Philippines, throwing debris into the stratosphere that shields the Earth from solar energy, which helps
interrupt the warming trend. Average temperatures drop for two years before rising again. Scientists point out that this event shows how sensitive
global temperatures are to disruption.
1992: Climate Change Convention, signed by 154 nations in Rio, agrees to prevent "dangerous" warming from greenhouse gases and sets initial
target of reducing emissions from industrialised countries to 1990 levels by the year 2000.
1994: The Alliance of Small Island States - many of whom fear they will disappear beneath the waves as sea levels rise - adopt a demand for 20%
cuts in emissions by the year 2005. This, they say, will cap sea-level rise at 20 centimetres.
1995: The hottest year recorded to date. In March, the Berlin Mandate is agreed by signatories at the first full meeting of the Climate Change
Convention in Berlin. Industrialised nations agree on the need to negotiate real cuts in their emissions, to be concluded by the end of 1997.
In November, the IPCC states that current warming "is unlikely to be entirely natural in origin" and that "the balance of evidence suggests a
discernible human influence on global climate". Its report predicts that, under a "business as usual" scenario, global temperatures by the year
2100 will have risen by between 1°C and 3.5°C.
1996: At the second meeting of the Climate Change Convention, the US agrees for the first time to legally binding emissions targets and sides
with the IPCC against influential sceptical scientists. After a four-year pause, global emissions of CO2 resume their steep climb, and scientists
warn that most industrialised countries will not meet Rio agreement to stabilise emissions at 1990 levels by the year 2000.
1997: Kyoto Protocol agrees legally binding emissions cuts for industrialised nations, averaging 5.4%, to be met by 2010. The meeting also adopts
a series of flexibility measures, allowing countries to meet their targets partly by trading emissions permits, establishing carbon sinks such as
forests to soak up emissions, and by investing in other countries. The precise rules are left for further negotiations. Meanwhile, the US government
says it will not ratify the agreement unless it sees evidence of "meaningful participation" in reducing emissions from developing countries.
1998: Follow-up negotiations in Buenos Aires fail to resolve disputes over the Kyoto "rule book", but agree on a deadline for resolution by the end
of 2000. 1998 is the hottest year in the hottest decade of the hottest century of the millennium.
2000: IPCC scientists re-assess likely future emissions and warn that, if things go badly, the world could warm by 6°C within a century. A series of
major floods around the world reinforce public concerns that global warming is raising the risk of extreme weather events. But in November,
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crunch talks held in The Hague to finalise the "Kyoto rule book" fail to reach agreement after EU and US fall out. Decisions postponed until at least
May 2001.
2001: The new US president, George W Bush, renounces the Kyoto Protocol because he believes it will damage the US economy. After some
hesitation, other nations agree to go ahead without him. Talks in Bonn in July and Marrakech in November finally conclude the fine print of the
protocol. Analysts say that loopholes have pegged agreed cuts in emissions from rich-nation signatories to less than a third of the original Kyoto
promise. Signatory nations urged to ratify the protocol in their national legislatures in time for it to come into force before the end of 2002.
2002: Parliaments in the European Union, Japan and others ratify Kyoto. But the protocol's complicated rules require ratification by nations
responsible for 55% of industrialised country emissions, before it can come into force. After Australia joins the US in reneging on the deal, Russia
is left to make or break the treaty, but hesitates. Meanwhile, the world experiences the second hottest year on record.
2003: Globally it is the third hottest year on record, but Europe experiences the hottest summer for at least 500 years, with an estimated 30,000
fatalities as a result. Researchers later conclude the heat wave is the first extreme weather event almost certainly attributable to man-made
climate change. Extreme weather costs an estimated record of $60 billion this year. 2003 also sees a marked acceleration in the rate of
accumulation of greenhouse gases. Scientists are uncertain if it is a blip or a new, more ominous trend. Meanwhile Russia blows hot and cold over
Kyoto.
2004: A deal is struck on Kyoto. President Putin announces in May that Russia will back the Protocol - and the EU announces it will support
Russia's membership of the World Trade Organization. On 18 November, the Russian parliament ratifies the protocol, paving the way for it to
come into force in 2005.
2005: Second warmest year on record. Researchers link warming to a record US hurricane season accelerated melting of Arctic sea ice and
Siberian permafrost, and apparent disruption of the global ocean current that warms Europe. The Kyoto Protocol comes into force. In December,
Kyoto signatories agree to discuss emissions targets for the second compliance period beyond 2012, while countries without targets, including the
US and China, agree to a “non-binding dialogue” on their future roles in curbing emissions.
New Scientist, 2006.
56 The original article written by Garret Hardin in 1968 addresses the tragedy of the commons concerning not climate change, but population
growth. Hardin describes a situation where a pasture is open to all where each herdsmen can keep as many cattle as possible on the commons.
Each herdsmen tries to rationalize his gain thinking, “What is the utility to me of adding one more animal to my herd?”. The answer includes one
negative and one positive utility. Firstly, the herdsmen benefits from one additional animal and later the sale of that animal. The negative utility
concerns the overgrazing of the commons created by that one animal. This does not have an equal negative impact to the herdsman compared to
the positives. The herdsmen share this with others. Hardin concludes, “…Each man is locked into a system that compels him to increase his herd
without limit – in a world that is limited. Ruin is the destination toward which all men rush, each pursuing his own best interests in a society that
believes in the freedom of the commons. Freedom in a commons brings ruin to all.” Pojman (ed,) 1997: 306. More information on the Tragedy of
the Commons can be found at, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons – viewed June 27 2006. The original essay can be found on the
Internet here, http://dieoff.org/page95.htm - viewed June 27 2006.
57 The majority of the world’s scientists acknowledge climate change as a phenomenon that is occurring and one that will have serious
repercussions. These include the International Council of Science found at www.icsu.org, National Academies of Science for Canada, United
States, Britain, Germany, Italy, France, Japan, Russia, Brazil, China ,India and others, the American Geophysical Union, American Meteorological
Society, NASA’s Goddard Institute for Space Studies, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the Environmental Protection
Agency, the US National Centre for Atmospheric Research, and the Canadian Meteorological and Oceanographic Society.
58 The media constructs what many citizens scientifically and politically know about Climate Change. “Our research suggests that the US, with
differing industries, predominantly dominated by the fossil fuel industry, in comparison to New Zealand and Finland, has a significant impact on the
media coverage of global warming. The U.S’s media states that global warming is controversial and theoretical, yet the other two countries
portray the story that is commonly found in the international scientific journals. Therefore, media acting as one driving force is providing citizens
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with piecemeal information that is necessary to assess the social, environmental and political conditions of the country and world.” Dispensa and
Brulle, 2003: 74. The dominant model of the public media is one that is characterized by “the manipulative deployment of media power to procure
mass loyalty, consumer demand, and compliance with systemic imperatives.” Habermas 1992:453. Dispensa and Brulle, 2003: 78. Research
suggests a typical paper will reject over 75% of the daily news. This illustrates the impact they can have on what news stories get printed and what
messages are sent to the viewer. Dispensa and Brulle, 2003: 80. It has also been concluded that while scientific and political forces are both
important to the debate, scientists become less dominant sources as the issue matures. As this occurs, the emphasis of the news coverage
concurrently shifts away from a presentation of the issue in terms of its causes and problematic nature and toward a presentation more grounded
in political debate and the proposal of solutions. Trumbo, 1996: 281.
59 A number of industry groups and others who believe that action on climate change is not in their self interest use various means to prevent
change. Methods include media and political process manipulation, attempts to discredit the science, and instilling confusion by promoting
obscure scientific representatives who disagree with the majority held view in the scientific community. These actions have occurred with other
issues were science has identified problems that require changes for the good of society but that are contrary to the economic interests of a
sector. The dairy industry initially opposed pasteurization early in the 20th century by trying to discredit the science that demonstrated that
pasteurization reduced disease. Similarly the pesticide industry worked to discredit scientific findings that pesticide use caused severe problems
in ecosystems. This approach to scientific findings for economic reasons differs from that which occurs in the scientific community. Here new
ideas that do not mesh well with mainstream ideas in science often encounter vigorous criticism because of established knowledge patterns in a
discipline. AAAS, 1993: 13.
Motivation for undermining of climate change science most often relates to economic self interest. Changes to reduce climate change may require
a reduction of the value of current infrastructure and manufacturing investments, reduction in use of particular resources and other economic
challenges.
For example various organizations have developed significant campaigns against climate change including the Global Climate Coalition founded
in 1989 by 46 corporations and trade associations representing all major elements of US industry. It funded studies on the economics of the cost
of mitigating climate change, which formed the basis of their 1997/1998 multi-million dollar advertising campaign against the Kyoto Protocol.
Similarly the Greening Earth Society founded on Earth Day 1998 by the Western Fuels Association promoted the view that increasing levels of
atmospheric CO2 are good for humanity. For further discussion on global warming skeptics see the Union for Concerned Scientists’ website
http://www.ucsusa.org/global_warming/science/skeptic-organizations.html. - Viewed September 3 2006.
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There are some methods to deal with the problem involve maximizing carbon uptake and offsetting humans excess greenhouse gas emissions.
This can be done by creating Carbon stocks and sinks with forests and agriculture. Agriculture can also be used as a biofuel instead of fossil fuels.
Coward and Weaver, 2004: 239. Individual actions include installing energy efficient light bulbs, replacing appliances with highest efficiency
models, wash clothes in cold water, turn down your thermostat 1C, Reduce air travel, reduce consumption, become a vegetarian and buy locally
produced seasonal produce. Godrej, 2001: 135. Some governments are undertaking efforts at the provincial, national and international levels to
response to climate change. To various degrees, governments try to bring about social change or to impede it through policies, laws, incentives, or
direct coercion. Sometimes such efforts achieve their intended results and sometimes they do not AAAS, 1993: 163. The United Nations
Intergovernmental panel on Climate Change (IPCC) conducts research on Climate Change and hold conferences to bring together scientists,
economists and politicians to spread knowledge and make change. Godrej, 2001: 19. International agreements such as the Kyoto accord have
attempted to control the greenhouse gas emissions and bring them down to previous levels.
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For example, Insurance companies in industrialized countries fear that extreme weather events could bankrupt the industry and destabilize
world markets. Godrej, 2001: 35. Andersson and Wallin, 2000. The growing interdependence of world social, economic, and ecological systems
does not always bring greater worldwide stability and often increases the costs of conflict AAAS, 1993: 174.
61 A drastic reduction in CO2 emission would have repercussions throughout the web of dependence through its impact on the economy, business
activities, infrastructure, social institutions, and the environment. The prices of implementing a carbon tax are less than formerly imagined. See
Jeffery Sachs article, Pay for it now, or Pay for it later. Globe and Mail. June 19, 2006. A13.
62At present there is no economic disincentive for the user applied when carbon based fossil fuels are used. These costs (climate change, smog,
resource depletion etc) are born by all people of the world, though unevenly, even though some of these people may not have enjoyed the
benefits. Until the cost of using fossil fuels is borne by the users, it is unlikely that alternative energy sources will be used to the degree
necessary.
63 Moreover, there are two very sound reasons why we should seek global agreement on adaptation. First, our current vulnerability to existing
climatic variability is very costly. For instance, about 640 million people are at risk of hunger now. Poverty is the root cause, but much of the yearto-year variability in hunger is due to drought. By drought proofing those at risk now we could secure their present livelihood and reduce the impact
of future climate change. There are many kinds of such ‘win-win’ solutions that serve both our present and future needs, such as increasing
irrigation efficiency, breeding more drought-resistant crops and developing buffer stocks of food. Second, adapting to climatic variability has a
substantially greater effect of reducing impact than does mitigation. Consider, for example, the effect of reducing water demand by 5 and 10 per
cent below current projections for 2050. Reducing water demand by just 5 per cent has four times as great an effect as reducing emissions by 30
per cent. Broadly, the same stress-reducing outcomes would stem from similar demand reductions in other impact sectors (such as reducing soil
erosion, or reducing crop yield losses to pests and diseases). Parry et al 1998.
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