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Chapter 7: Behavior and Its Consequences W. J. Wilson, Psychology November 7, 2016 Basic Tools and Issues Reinforcement versus contiguity theory Flexibility, purpose, and motivation Operant psychology Conditioned reinforcement The Relationship between Behavior and Payoff Different ways to schedule payoff Choice Choice is everywhere Impulsiveness and self-control Behavioral economics: Are reinforcers all alike? Theories of Reinforcement Drive reduction The Premack principle Problems with the Premack principle Behavioral regulation theory Selection by consequences Reinforcement or Contiguity? • Thorndike (a reinforcement theorist): • Law of effect: positive consequences strengthen responses; negative consequences weaken responses Reinforcement or Contiguity? • Guthrie (a contiguity theorist): • Reinforcement not necessary: S & R occur together and they become associated. • Learning requires only 1 trial S-R v S-S Learning • Thorndike & Guthrie: S-R • Response is strengthened; no learning about anything • MacFarlane (1930): Swimming rats disproved S-R. • Tolman: S-S • S is learned about; specific Rs are not learned S-R v S-S Learning • Tolman et al. (1946): Circuitous path study • Tolman et al. (1946): Plus-maze study • Tolman & Honzik (1930): Reinf-NonReinf Study • – All illustrate that Rs not learned • – T & H: Reinforcement unnecessary Skinner’s Operant Psychology • “Atheoretical” - focussed entirely on S & R; mind (and brain) irrelevant to a science of behavior. • Operants: Rs that operate on environment (& can be made whenever the animal wants, hence they seem voluntary) • Superstitious behaviors • Stimulus control: SD and S∆ • Cumulative recorder Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous reinforcement: CRF Partial reinforcement: • Fixed Ratio (FR1 is special case: continuous reinforcement) • Fixed Interval — scalloped cumulative record • Varied Ratio — highest rate of responding • Varied Interval — slow, steady rate • others are possible: e.g., DRL • Partial Reinforcement Effect Choice • Concurrent schedules allow examination of choice behavior • Herrnstein (1961) Matching Law: B1 /(B1 + B2 ) = R1 /(R1 + R2 ) (1) • e.g., behavior occurs proportionally to the extent to which it is reinforced. • Choice is everywhere — even if only 1 behavior is being measured, many others are always available to the subject. Quantitative Law of Effect Herrnstein (1970): B1 = KxR1 /(R1 + RO ) (2) • K: constant reflecting all possible behavior in a given situation • RO : constant reflecting total reinforcement value of all other behaviors. • K & R will vary from animal to animal • Bouton suggests implications for understanding attraction of drugs to some people, especially those with low RO Impulsiveness • Animals (human and non-human) will select small soon reward over large delayed reward • If choice is made well in advance of the rewards, larger one is usually chosen, even if it comes later. • Rachlin suggests that “pre-commitment” can avoid impulsive choice. • Implications for behavior on “Deal or No Deal?” Behavioral Economics Are All Reinforcers alike? • Tinklepaugh (1928): monkeys, banana, lettuce. Tells us about substitutability, cognition. • Reinforcers can be substitutes, independent, or complements. • PCP cost goes up, alcohol substitutes • Alcohol cost goes up, PCP independent! • Alcohol cost goes up, cigarettes act as complements. • An understanding of substitutability is necessary to an understanding of reinforcement. Theories of Reinforcement Hull’s Drive Reduction • Drive arises from need — shortage of a biological essential • Drive reduction is reinforcing • BUT: many reinforcers unrelated to need Theories of Reinforcement Premack Principle • More-preferred R will reinforce a less-preferred R. • Measure which of two Rs is more preferred, can safely predict that it will reinforce the other one. • Sometimes adequate or appropriate measure of preference is difficult Theories of Reinforcement Behavior Regulation Theory (response deprivation hypothesis) • Preferred level for every R • If R is prevented to a point below its preferred level, animal will engage in it more when given the opportunity. • Result is that a “ledd-preferred” R, if prevented, will then reinforce a more-preferred R. • “Bliss point” illustrates preferred level of each of two Rs when preference is measured. • When sched of reinf constrains extent to which Rs can occur, the level of each will achieve the “minimum distance” to the bliss point. • Behav Regul theory works well for ratio scheds, but Matching does better for interval scheds. Selection by Consequences • Recent interest in application of natural selection to behavioral choice and reinforcement. • Variation in behavior ensures that multiple Rs are available; consequences select the ones that “survive.” • Remains to be seen how valuable this approach is to understanding reinforcement & onstrumental conditioning.